Link3_taiwanflorist
发布日期:2025-01-04 15:30 点击次数:165
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Rose
�@
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Plantae
�@
Division:
Magnoliophyta
�@
Class:
Magnoliopsida
�@
Order:
Rosales
�@
Family:
Rosaceae
�@
Subfamily:
Rosoideae
�@
Genus:
Rosa
L.
�@
Species
Between 100 and 150,
see list
A rose is a flowering
shrub of the
genus Rosa,
and the flower
of this shrub. There are more than a hundred
species of
wild roses, all from the
northern hemisphere and mostly from temperate regions. The species form a
group of generally prickly
shrubs or
climbers, and
sometimes trailing plants, reaching 2�V5 m tall, rarely reaching as high as 20 m
by climbing over other plants.
The name originates from
Latin rosa,
borrowed through
Oscan from
colonial Greek in southern
Italy: rhodon
(Aeolic form:
wrodon), from
Aramaic
wurrdā, from
Assyrian wurtinnu, from Old Iranian *warda (cf.
Armenian vard,
Avestan
warda,
Sogdian ward,
Parthian wâr).
Rose hips
are sometimes eaten, mainly for their vitamin C content. They are usually
pressed and filtered to make rose-hip syrup, as the fine hairs surrounding the
seeds are unpleasant to eat (resembling itching powder). They can also be used
to make herbal tea,
jam,
jelly and
marmalade.
1 Botany
1.1 Species
2 Pests and diseases
3 Cultivation
3.1 Pruning
3.1.1 Deadheading
4 History
5 Culture
5.1 Symbolism
5.2 In art
5.3 Quotes
6 Perfume
7 Notable rose
growers
8 See also
9 Notes
�@
Botany
The leaves of
most species are 5�V15 cm long,
pinnate, with
(3�V) 5�V9 (�V13) leaflets and basal stipules; the leaflets usually have a serrated
margin, and often a few small prickles on the underside of the stem. The vast
majority of roses are
deciduous,
but a few (particularly in southeast
Asia) are
evergreen
or nearly so.
The flowers
of most species roses have five petals, with the exception of
Rosa
sericea, which often has only four. Each petal is divided into two
distinct lobes and are usually white or pink, though in a few species yellow or
red. Beneath the petals are five sepals (or in the case of some
Rosa
sericea, four). These may be long enough to be visible when viewed from
above and appear as green points alternating with the rounded petals. The ovary
is inferior, developing below the petals and sepals.
The
aggregate fruit of the rose is a berry-like structure called a
rose hip.
Rose species that produce open-faced flowers are attractive to
pollinating bees
and other insects,
thus more apt to produce hips. Many of the domestic cultivars are so tightly
petalled that they do not provide access for pollination. The hips of most
species are red, but a few (e.g.
Rosa pimpinellifolia) have dark purple to black hips. Each hip comprises
an outer fleshy layer, the
hypanthium,
which contains 5�V160 "seeds" (technically dry single-seeded fruits called
achenes)
embedded in a matrix of fine, but stiff, hairs. Rose hips of some species,
especially the
Dog Rose (Rosa canina) and
Rugosa
Rose (Rosa rugosa), are very rich in
vitamin C,
among the richest sources of any plant. The hips are eaten by fruit-eating
birds such as
thrushes and
waxwings, which then disperse the seeds in their droppings. Some birds,
particularly finches,
also eat the seeds.
While the sharp objects along a rose stem are commonly called "thorns", they
are actually prickles �X outgrowths of the epidermis (the outer layer of tissue
of the stem). True thorns, as produced by e.g.
Citrus or
Pyracantha, are modified stems, which always originate at a node and
which have nodes and internodes along the length of the thorn itself. Rose
prickles are typically sickle-shaped hooks, which aid the rose in hanging onto
other vegetation when growing over it. Some species such as Rosa rugosa
and R. pimpinellifolia have densely packed straight spines, probably an
adaptation to reduce browsing by animals, but also possibly an adaptation to
trap wind-blown sand
and so reduce
erosion and protect their
roots (both of
these species grow naturally on
coastal
sand dunes).
Despite the presence of prickles, roses are frequently browsed by
deer. A few species
of roses only have vestigial prickles that have no points.
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Species
Rosa multiflora
Further information:
List of Rosa species
Some representative rose species
Rosa canina �X Dog Rose, Briar Bush
Rosa chinensis �X China Rose
Rosa
dumalis �X Glaucous Dog Rose
Rosa
gallica �X Gallic Rose, French Rose
Rosa gigantea (syn. R. x odorata gigantea)
Rosa glauca (syn. R. rubrifolia) �X Redleaf Rose
Rosa laevigata (syn. R. sinica) �X Cherokee Rose, Camellia Rose,
Mardan Rose
Rosa multiflora �X Multiflora Rose
Rosa persica (syn. Hulthemia persica, R. simplicifolia)
Rosa roxburghii �X Chestnut Rose, Burr Rose
Rosa rubiginosa (syn. R. eglanteria) �X Eglantine, Sweet Brier
Rosa rugosa �X Rugosa Rose, Japanese Rose
Rosa spinosissima �X Scotch Rose
Rosa stellata �X Gooseberry Rose, Sacramento Rose
Rosa virginiana (syn. R. lucida) �X Virginia Rose
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Pests and diseases
Roses are subject to several
diseases. The
most serious is
rose rust (Phragmidium mucronatum), a species of
rust
fungus, which can defoliate the plant. More common, though less
debilitating, are
rose black spot, caused by the fungus Diplocarpon rosae, which makes
circular black spots on the leaves in summer, and
powdery mildew, caused by Sphaerotheca pannosa. Fungal diseases are
best solved by a preventative
fungicidal
spray program rather than by trying to cure an infection after it is visible.
After the disease is visible, its spread can be minimized through pruning and
use of fungicides although actual infection cannot be reversed. Some rose
varieties are considerably less susceptible than others to fungal disease.
The main insect pest affecting roses is the
aphid (greenfly),
which sucks the sap and weakens the plant.
Ladybirds are a predator of aphids and should be encouraged in the rose
garden. Spraying with insecticide is often recommended but should be done with
care to minimize loss of beneficial insects. Roses are also used as food plants
by the larvae of
some
Lepidoptera species; see
list of Lepidoptera which feed on Roses.
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Cultivation
See also:
Rose cultivars named after celebrities
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Roses are one of the most popular
garden shrubs,
as well as the most popular and commonly-sold
florists'
flowers. In addition to their great economic importance as a florists' crop,
roses are also of great value to the
perfume
industry.
Many thousands of rose
hybrids and
cultivars
have been bred and selected for garden use, mostly double-flowered with many or
all of the stamens
mutated into additional
petals. As long
ago as 1840 a collection numbering over one thousand different cultivars,
varieties and species was possible when a rosarium was planted by
Loddiges
nursery for
Abney Park Cemetery, an early Victorian garden cemetery and arboretum in
England. Twentieth-century rose breeders generally emphasized size and color,
producing large, attractive blooms with little or no scent. Many wild and
"old-fashioned" roses, by contrast, have a strong sweet scent.
Roses thrive in
temperate climates, though certain species and cultivars can flourish in
sub-tropical and even
tropical
climates, especially when
grafted
onto appropriate
rootstock.
There is no single system of classification for garden roses. In general,
however, roses are placed in one of three main groups:
Wild Roses �X The wild roses includes the species listed above and
some of their hybrids.
Old Garden Roses �X Most Old Garden Roses are classified into one of
the following groups. In general, Old Garden Roses of
European or
Mediterranean origin are once-blooming shrubs, with notably fragrant,
double-flowered blooms primarily in shades of white, pink and red. The shrubs'
foliage tends to be highly disease-resistant, and they generally bloom only on
two-year-old canes.
Alba �X Literally "white roses", derived from R. arvensis
and the closely allied R. alba. These are some of the oldest garden
roses, probably brought to
Great Britain by the
Romans. The shrubs flower once yearly in the spring with blossoms of
white or pale pink. The shrubs frequently feature gray-green foliage and a
climbing habit of growth . Examples: 'Alba Semiplena', 'White
Rose of York'.
Gallica �X The gallica roses have been developed from R. gallica,
which is a native of central and southern
Europe.
They flower once in the summer over low shrubs rarely over 4' tall. Unlike
most other once-blooming Old Garden Roses, the gallica class includes shades
of red, maroon and deep purplish crimson. Examples: 'Cardinal de Richelieu',
'Charles de Mills', 'Rosa Mundi' (R. gallica versicolor).
Damask �X Robert de Brie is given credit for bringing them from
Persia to
Europe sometime between
1254 and
1276, although
there is evidence from ancient Roman frescoes that at least one damask rose,
the Autumn Damask, existed in Europe for hundreds of years prior. Summer
damasks (crosses between gallica roses and R. phoenicea) bloom once
in summer. Autumn damasks (Gallicas crossed with R. moschata) bloom
again later, in the autumn. Shrubs tend to have rangy to sprawly growth
habits and vicious thorns. The flowers typically have a more loose petal
formation than gallicas, as well as a stronger, tangy fragrance. Examples: 'Ispahan',
'Madame Hardy'.
Centifolia (or Provence) �X These roses, raised in the
seventeenth century in the
Netherlands, are named for their "one hundred" petals; they are often
called "cabbage" roses due to the globular shape of the flowers. The result
of damask roses crossed with albas, the centifolias are all once-flowering.
As a class, they are notable for their inclination to produce mutations of
various sizes and forms, including moss roses and some of the first
miniature roses (see below) . Examples: 'Centifolia', 'Paul Ricault'.
Moss �X Mutations of primarily centifolia roses (or sometimes
damasks), these have a mossy excrescence on the
stems
and sepals
that often emits a pleasant woodsy or balsam scent when rubbed. Moss roses
are cherised for this unique trait, but as a group they have contributed
nothing to the development of new rose classifications. Moss roses with
centifolia background are once-flowering; some moss roses exhibit
repeat-blooming, indicative of Autumn Damask parentage. Example: 'Common
Moss' (centifolia-moss), 'Alfred de Dalmas' (Autumn Damask moss).
China �X The China roses were grown in East Asia for thousands of
years and finally reached Western Europe in the late 1700s. Compared to the
aforementioned European rose classes, the China roses had smaller, less
fragrant, more poorly formed blooms carried over twiggier, more
cold-sensitive shrubs. Yet they possessed the amazing ability to bloom
repeatedly throughout the summer and into late autumn, unlike their European
counterpants. This made they highly desirable for hybridization purposes in
the early 1800s. The flowers of China roses were also notable for their
tendency to "suntan," or darken over time �X unlike the blooms of European
roses, which tended to fade after opening. Four China roses ('Slater's
Crimson China',
1792; 'Parsons' Pink China',
1793; 'Hume's
Blush China', 1809;
and 'Parks' Yellow Tea Scented China',
1824) were
brought to
Europe in the late
eighteenth and early
nineteenth centuries. This brought about the creation of the first
classes of repeat-flowering Old Garden Roses, and later the Modern Garden
Roses. Examples: 'Old Blush China', 'Mutabilis'.
Portland �X The Portland roses represent the first group of
crosses between China roses and European roses, specifically gallicas and
damasks. They were named after the
Duchess of Portland who received (from
Italy in
1800) a rose
then known as R. paestana or 'Scarlet Four Seasons' Rose' (now known
simply as 'The Portland Rose'). The whole class of Portland roses was thence
developed from that one rose. The first repeat-flowering class of rose with
fancy European-style blossoms, they are mostly descended from hybrids
between damask and China roses. The plants tend to be fairly short and
shrubby, with proportionately short flower stalks. Example: 'James Veitch',
'Rose de Rescht', 'Comte de Chambourd'.
Bourbon �X Bourbons originated on l'Île de Bourbon (now called
Réunion)
off the coast of Madagascar in the Indian Ocean. They are most likely the
result of a cross between the Autumn Damask and the 'Old Blush' China rose,
both of which were frequently used as hedging materials on the island. They
flower repeatedly over vigorous, frequently semi-climbing shrubs with glossy
foliage and purple-tinted canes. They were first Introduced in
France in
1823. Examples:
'Louise Odier', 'Mme. Pierre Oger', 'Zéphirine Drouhin'.
Noisette �X The first Noisette rose was raised as a hybrid
seedling by a South Carolina rice planter named John Champneys. Its parents
were the China Rose 'Parson's Pink' and the autumn-flowering musk rose (Rosa
moschata), resulting in a vigorous climbing rose producing huge clusters
of small pink flowers from spring to fall. Champneys sent seedlings of his
rose (called 'Champneys' Pink Cluster') to his gardening friend, Philippe
Noisette, who in turn sent plants to his brother Louis in
Paris, who then introduced 'Blush Noisette' in 1817. The first Noisettes
were small-blossomed, fairly winter-hardy climbers, but later infusions of
Tea rose genes created a Tea-Noisette subclass with larger flowers, smaller
clusters, and considerably reduced winter hardiness. Examples: 'Blush
Noisette', 'Mme. Alfred Carriere' (Noisette), 'Marechal Niel' (Tea-Noisette).
(See
French and
German articles on Noisette roses)
Tea �X The result of crossing two of the original China roses
('Hume's Blush China' and 'Parks' Yellow Tea Scented China') with various
Bourbons and Noisette roses, tea roses are considerably more tender than
other Old Garden Roses (due to cold-tender Rosa gigantea in the
ancestry of the 'Parks' Yellow' rose). The teas are repeat-flowering roses,
named for their fragrance being reminiscent of Chinese black tea (although
this is not always the case). The color range includes pastel shades of
white, pink and yellow, and the petals tend to roll back at the edges,
producing a petal with a pointed tip. The individual flowers of many
cultivars are semi-pendent and nodding, due to weak flower stalks. Examples:
'Lady Hillingdon', 'Maman Cochet'.
Hybrid Perpetual �X The dominant class of roses in
Victorian England, they first emerged in 1838 and were derived to a
great extent from the Bourbons. They became the most popular garden and
florist roses of northern Europe at the time, as the tender tea roses would
not thrive in cold climates. The "perpetual" in the name hints at
repeat-flowering, but many varieties of this class had poor reflowering
habits; the tendency was for a massive spring bloom, followed by either
scattered summer flowering, a smaller autumn burst, or sometimes nothing at
all until next spring. Due to a limited color palette (white, pink, red) and
lack of reliable repeat-bloom, the hybrid perpetuals were ultimately
overshadowed by their own descendants, the Hybrid Teas. Examples: 'Ferdinand
Pichard', 'Reine Des Violettes', 'Paul Neyron'.
Bermuda "Mystery" Roses �X A group of several dozen "found" roses
that have been grown in
Bermuda
for at least a century. The roses have significant value and interest for
those growing roses in tropical and semi-tropical regions, since they are
highly resistant to both
nematode
damage and the
fungal
diseases that plague rose culture in hot, humid areas, and capable of
blooming in hot and humid weather. Most of these roses are likely Old Garden
Rose cultivars that have otherwise dropped out of cultivation, or sports
thereof. They are "mystery roses" because their "proper" historical names
have been lost. Tradition dictates that they are named after the owner of
the garden where they were rediscovered.
Miscellaneous �X There are also a few smaller classes (such as
Scots, Sweet Brier) and some climbing classes of old roses (including
Ayrshire, Climbing China, Laevigata, Sempervirens, Boursault, Climbing Tea,
and Climbing Bourbon). Those classes with both climbing and shrub forms are
often grouped together.
Modern Garden Roses �X Classification of modern roses can be quite
confusing because many modern roses have old garden roses in their ancestry
and their form varies so much. The classifications tend to be by growth and
flowering characteristics, such as "large-flowered shrub", "recurrent,
large-flowered shrub", "cluster-flowered", "rambler recurrent", or
"ground-cover non-recurrent". The following includes the most notable and
popular classifications of Modern Garden Roses:
Hybrid Tea �X The favourite rose for much of the history of modern
roses, hybrid teas were initially created by hybridizing Hybrid Perpetuals
with Tea roses in the late 1800s. 'La France,' created in 1867, is
universally acknowledged as the first indication of a new class of roses.
Hybrid teas exhibit traits midway between both parents: hardier than the
teas but less hardy than the hybrid perpetuals, and more everblooming than
the hybrid perpetuals but less so than the teas. The flowers are well-formed
with large, high-centered buds, and each flowering stem typically terminates
in a single shapely bloom. The shrubs tend to be stiffly upright and
sparsely foliaged, which today is often seen as a liability in the
landscape. The hybrid tea class is important in being the first class of
roses to include genes from the old Austrian brier rose (Rosa foetida).
This resulted in an entirely new color range for roses: shades of deep
yellow, apricot, copper, orange, true scarlet, yellow bicolors, lavender,
gray, and even brown were now possible. The new color range did much to
skyrocket hybrid tea popularity in the
20th century, but these colors came at a price: Rosa foetida also
passed on a tendency toward disease-susceptibility, scentless blooms, and an
intolerance of pruning, to its descendants. Hybrid teas became the single
most popular class of garden rose of the 20th century; today, their
reputation as being more high maintenance than many other rose classes has
led to a decline in hybrid tea popularity among gardeners and landscapers in
favor of lower-maintenance "landscape" roses. The hybrid tea remains the
standard rose of the floral industry, however, and is still favoured in
small gardens in formal situations. Examples: 'Peace',
'Mr. Lincoln,' 'Double Delight.'
Polyantha �X Literally "many-flowered" roses, from the Greek "poly"
(many) and "anthos" (flower). Originally derived from crosses between two
East Asian species (Rosa chinensis and R. multiflora),
polyanthas first appeared in France in the late 1800s alongside the hybrid
teas. They featured short plants �X some compact, others spreading in habit �X
with tiny blooms (1" in diameter on average) carried in large sprays, in the
typical rose colors of white, pink and red. Their main claim to fame was
their prolific bloom: From spring to fall, a healthy polyantha shrub might
be literally covered in flowers, creating a strong color impact in the
landscape. Polyantha roses are still regarded as low-maintenance,
disease-resistant garden roses today, and remain popular for that reason.
Examples: 'Cecile Brunner', 'The Fairy', 'Red Fairy'.
Floribunda �X Rose breeders quickly saw the value in crossing
polyanthas with hybrid teas, to create roses with that bloomed with the
polyantha profusion, but with hybrid tea floral beauty and color range. In
1909, the first polyantha/hybrid tea cross, 'Gruss an Aachen,' was created,
with characteristics midway between both parent classes. As the larger, more
shapely flowers and hybrid-tea-like growth habit separated these new roses
from polyanthas and hybrid teas alike, a new class was created and named
Floribunda, Latin for "many-flowering." Typical floribundas feature stiff
shrubs, smaller and bushier than the average hybrid tea but less dense and
sprawling than the average polyantha. The flowers are often smaller than
hybrid teas but are carried in large sprays, giving a better floral effect
in the garden. Floribundas are found in all hybrid tea colors and with the
classic hybrid tea-shaped blossom, sometimes differing from hybrid teas only
in their cluster-flowering habit. Today they are still used in large bedding
schemes in public
parks and similar spaces. Examples: 'Dainty Maid', 'Iceberg', 'Tuscan
Sun'.
Grandiflora �X Grandifloras (Latin for "large-flowered") were the
class of roses created in the mid 1900s to designate back-crosses between
hybrid teas and floribundas that fit neither category �X specifically, the
'Queen Elizabeth' rose, which was introduced in 1954[1].
Grandiflora shrubs are typically larger than either hybrid teas or
floribundas, and feature hybrid tea-style flowers borne in small clusters of
three to five, similar to a floribunda. Grandifloras maintained some
popularity from about the
1950s to the
1980s but
today they are much less popular than either the hybrid teas or the
floribundas. Examples: 'Queen Elizabeth', 'Comanche,' 'Montezuma'.
Miniature �X All of the classes of Old Garden Roses �X gallicas,
centifolias, etc. �X had corresponding miniature forms, although these were
once-flowering just as their larger forms were. As with the standard-sized
varieties, miniature Old Garden roses were crossed with repeat-blooming
Asian species to produce everblooming miniature roses. Today, miniature
roses are represented by twiggy, repeat-flowering shrubs ranging from 6" to
36" in height, with most falling in the 12"�V24" height range. Blooms come in
all the hybrid tea colors; many varieties also emulate the classic
high-centered hybrid tea flower shape. Miniature roses are often marketed
and sold by the floral industry as houseplants, but it is important to
remember that these plants are largely descended from outdoor shrubs native
to temperate regions; thus, most miniature rose varieties require an annual
period of cold dormancy to survive. Examples: 'Petite de Hollande'
(Miniature Centifolia, once-blooming), 'Cupcake' (Modern Miniature,
repeat-blooming).
Climbing/Rambling �X As is the case with Miniature roses, all
aforementioned classes of roses, both Old and Modern, have "climbing" forms,
whereby the canes of the shrubs grow much longer and more flexible than the
normal ("bush") forms. In the Old Garden Roses, this is often simply the
natural growth habit of many cultivars and varieties; in many Modern roses,
however, climbing roses are the results of spontaneous mutations. For
example, 'Climbing Peace' is designated as a "Climbing Hybrid Tea," for it
is genetically identical to the normal "shrub" form of the 'Peace' hybrid
tea rose, except that its canes are long and flexible, i.e. "climbing." Most
Climbing roses grow anywhere from 8'�V20' in height and exhibit repeat-bloom.
Rambler roses, although technically a separate class, are often lumped
together with climbing roses. They also exhibit long, flexible canes, but
are distinguished from true climbers in two ways: A larger overall size
(20'�V30' tall is common), and a once-blooming habit. It should be noted that
both climbing roses and rambling roses are not true vines such as
ivy,
clematis
or wisteria;
they lack the ability to cling to supports on their own, and must be
manually trained and tied over structures such as arbors and pergolas.
Examples: 'Blaze' (repeat-blooming climber), 'American Pillar'
(once-blooming rambler).
English/David Austin �X Although not officially recognized as a
separate class of roses by any established rose authority, English (aka
David Austin) roses are often set aside as such by consumers and retailers
alike. They were conceptualized and created in the
1960s by
David Austin of
Shropshire,
England,
who wanted to rekindle interest in Old Garden Roses by hybridizing OGRs with
modern hybrid teas and floribundas. The idea was to create a new group of
roses that featured blooms with old-fashioned shapes and fragrances,
evocative of classic gallica, alba and damask roses, but with modern
repeat-blooming characteristics and the larger modern color range as well.
Austin mostly succeeded in his mission; his tribe of "English" roses, now
numbering hundreds of varieties, has been warmly embraced by the gardening
public and are widely available to consumers. It should be noted that the
typical winter-hardiness and disease-resistance of the classic Old Garden
Roses has largely been compromised in the process; many English roses are
susceptible to the same disease problems that plague modern hybrid teas and
floribundas, and many are not hardy north of USDA Zone 5. Examples: 'Mary
Rose,' 'Graham Thomas', 'Tamora'.
Landscape Roses �X These are a modern classifation of rose developed
mainly for mass amenity planting. In the late 20th century, traditional hybrid
tea and floribunda rose varieties fell out of favor amid gardeners and
landscapers, as they are often labor- and chemical-intensive plants
susceptible to myriad pest and disease problems. So-called "landscape" roses
have thus been developed to fill the consumer desire for a garden rose that
offers color, form and fragrance, but is also low maintenance and easy to care
for. Most landscape roses having the following characteristics:
Good disease resistance
Lower growing habit, usually under 60cm
Repeat flowering
Disease and pest resistance
Non suckering, growing on their own roots.
Principal parties involved in the breeding of new Landscape Roses varieties
are Werner Noak (Germany) Meidiland Roses (France) Boot&Co. (Netherlands)
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Pruning
Rose pruning,
sometimes regarded as horticultural art form, is largely dependant on the type
of rose to be pruned, the reason for pruning, and the time of year it is at the
time of the desired pruning.
Most Old Garden Roses of strict European heritage (albas, damasks, gallicas,
etc.) are shrubs that bloom once yearly, in late spring or early summer, on
two-year-old (or older) canes. As such, their pruning requirements are quite
minimal, and are overall similar to any other analogous shrub, such as
lilac or
forsythia.
Generally, only old, spindly canes should be pruned away, to make room for new
canes. One-year-old canes should never be pruned because doing so will remove
next year's flower buds. The shrubs can also be pruned back lightly, immediately
after the blooms fade, to reduce the overall height or width of the plant. In
general, pruning requirements for OGRs are much less laborious and regimented
than for Modern hybrids.
Modern hybrids, including the hybrid teas, floribundas, grandifloras, modern
miniatures, and English roses, have a complex genetic background that almost
always includes China roses (R. chinensis). China roses were evergrowing,
everblooming roses from humid subtropical regions that bloomed constantly on any
new vegetative growth produced during the growing season. Their modern hybrid
descendants exhibit similar habits: Unlike Old Garden Roses, modern hybrids
bloom continuously (until stopped by frost) on any new canes produced during the
growing season. They therefore require pruning away of any spent flowering stem,
in order to divert the plant's energy into producing new growth and thence new
flowers.
Additionally, Modern Hybrids planted in cold-winter climates will almost
universally require a "hard" annual pruning (reducing all canes to 8"�V12" in
height) in early spring. Again, because of their complex China rose background,
Modern Hybrids are typically not as cold-hardy as European OGRs, and low winter
temperatures often desiccate or kill exposed canes. In spring, if left unpruned,
these damanged canes will often die back all the way to the shrub's root zone,
resulting in a weakened, disfigured plant. The annual "hard" pruning of hybrid
teas, floribundas, etc. should generally be done in early spring; most
gardeneres coincide this pruning with the blooming of forsythia shrubs. Canes
should be cut about 1/2" above a vegetative bud (identifiable as a point on a
cane where a leaf once grew).
For both Old Garden Roses and Modern Hybrids, any weak, damaged or diseased
growth should be pruned away completely, regardless of the time of year. Any
pruning of any rose should also be done so that the cut is made at a 45-degree
angle above a vegetative bud. This helps the pruned stem callus-over more
quickly, and also mitigates moisture buildup over the cut, which can lead to
disease problems.
For all general rose pruning (including cutting flowers for arrangements),
sharp secateurs (hand-held, sickle-bladed pruners) should be used to cut any
growth 1/2" or less in diameter. For canes of a thickness greater than 1/2",
pole loppers or a small handsaw are generally more effective; secateurs may be
damaged or broken in such instances.
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Deadheading
Deadheading is the simple practice of manually removing any spent, faded,
withered or discolored flowers from rose shrubs over the course of the blooming
season. In Modern Hybrid roses, this is done for several reasons: To promote
rebloom, to keep shrubs looking tidy, to eliminate stem dieback (see Pruning,
above) and to eliminate excess debris accumulation in the garden.
Deadheading is less necessary with Old Garden Roses, as it will not promote
rebloom in any once-blooming varieties, but can still be done after the flowers
fade for aesthetic purposes.
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History
The rose has always been valued for its beauty and has a long history of
symbolism. The ancient
Greeks and
Romans
identified the rose with their goddesses of love referred to as Aphrodite and
Venus. In Rome a
wild rose would be placed on the door of a room where secret or confidential
matters were discussed. The phrase
sub rosa,
or "under the rose", means to keep a secret �X derived from this ancient Roman
practice.
Early
Christians identified the five petals of the rose with the five wounds of
Christ. Despite
this interpretation, their leaders were hesitant to adopt it because of its
association with Roman excesses and pagan ritual. The red rose was eventually
adopted as a symbol of the blood of the
Christian
martyrs. Roses also later came to be associated with the Virgin Mary.
Rose culture came into its own in
Europe in the
1800s with the introduction of perpetual blooming roses from
China. There are
currently thousands of varieties of roses developed for bloom shape, size,
fragrance and even for lack of prickles.
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Culture
Roses are ancient symbols of
love and
beauty. The
rose was sacred to a number of
goddesses
(including Isis and
Aphrodite),
and is often used as a symbol of
the Virgin Mary. Roses are so important that the word means pink or red in a
variety of languages (such as
Romance languages,
Greek, and
Polish).
The rose is the
national flower of
England and
the United States, as well as being the symbol of
England Rugby, and of the
Rugby Football Union. It is also the provincial flower of
Yorkshire
and
Lancashire in
England (the white rose and red rose respectively) and of
Alberta (the
wild rose), and the state flower of four US states:
Iowa and
North
Dakota (R.
arkansana),
Georgia (R.
laevigata), and
New York (Rosa
generally).
Portland, Oregon counts "City of Roses" among its nicknames, and holds an
annual Rose Festival.
Roses are occasionally the basis of design for
rose
windows, such windows comprising five or ten segments (the five petals and
five sepals of a rose) or multiples thereof; however most Gothic rose windows
are much more elaborate and were probably based originally on the wheel and
other symbolism.
A red rose (often held in a hand) is also a symbol of
socialism
or
social democracy; it is also used as a symbol by the
British and
Irish
Labour Parties, as well as by the French, Spanish (Spanish Socialist
Workers' Party), Portuguese, Norwegian, Danish, Swedish, Finnish, Brazilian,
Dutch (Partij van de
Arbeid) and European socialist parties. This originates from the red rose
used as a badge by the marchers in the
May 1968
street protests in
Paris.
White Rose was a World War II non-violent resistance group in Germany.
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Symbolism
Further information:
Rose (symbolism)
According to the
Victorian "language
of flowers", different colored roses each have their own symbolic meaning.
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Pink: grace, gentle feelings of love
Dark Pink: gratitude
Light Pink: admiration, sympathy
White: innocence, purity, secrecy, friendship, reverence and
humility.
Yellow: Yellow roses generally mean dying love or
platonic love. In German-speaking countries, however, they can mean
jealousy and infidelity.
Yellow with red tips: Friendship, falling in love
Orange: passion
Burgundy: beauty
Blue: mystery
Further information:
blue rose
Green: calm
Black: slavish devotion (as a true black rose is impossible to
produce)
Purple: protection (paternal/maternal love)
The rose also has various supernatural and literary attributes.
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In art
Renoir painting of
cabbage roses
Roses are often portrayed by
artists. The
French artist
Pierre-Joseph Redouté produced some of the most detailed paintings of roses.
Henri Fantin-Latour was also a prolific painter of still life, particularly
flowers including roses. The Rose 'Fantin-Latour' was named after the artist.
Other impressionists including
Claude
Monet and
Paul
Cézanne have paintings of roses among their works.
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Quotes
In the driest whitest stretch of pain's infinite desert, I lost my
sanity and found this rose. �X
Rumi
What's in a name? That which we call a rose/By any other name would
smell as sweet. �X
William Shakespeare,
Romeo and Juliet act II, sc. ii
O, my love's like a red, red rose/That's newly sprung in June �X
Robert Burns,
A Red, Red Rose
Hearts starve as well as bodies; give us bread, but give us roses.
�X James Oppenheim, "Bread
and Roses"
Rose is a rose is a rose is a rose �X
Gertrude Stein, Sacred Emily (1913), a poem included in
Geography and Plays.
Arise, arise, arouse, a rose! �X Eh, a rosy nose? �X
Jeremy Hilary Boob, Ph.D. (more commonly referred to as the 'Nowhere
Man'),
Yellow Submarine (film)
A name is a rose, and it only smells as sweet as you are. -The
Tick
�@
Perfume
Rose perfumes are made from
attar of roses or rose oil, which is a mixture of volatile
essential oils obtained by steam-distilling the crushed petals of roses. The
technique originated in
Persia (the word Rose itself is from Persian) then spread through
Arabia and
India, but
nowadays about 70% to 80% of production is in the
Rose Valley near
Kazanluk in
Bulgaria,
with some production in
Qamsar in
Iran and
Germany. The
Kaaba in
Mecca is annually
washed by the Iranian
rose water
from Qamsar. In Bulgaria, Iran and Germany, damask roses (Rosa damascena
'Trigintipetala') are used. In the French rose oil industry Rosa centifolia
is used. The oil, pale yellow or yellow-grey in color, is sometimes called 'Rose
Absolute' oil to distinguish it from diluted versions. The weight of oil
extracted is about one three-thousandth to one six-thousandth of the weight of
the flowers; for example, about 2,000 flowers are required to produce one gram
of oil.
The main constituents of attar of roses are the fragrant
alcohols
geraniol,
which has the empirical formula C10H18O and the structural
formula CH3.C[CH3]:CH.CH2.CH2.C[CH3]:CH.CH2OH
and l-citronellol;
and rose camphor, an odourless
paraffin.There
is also a balm consisting of crushed raspberries, strawberries, blackberries,
and rose petals which make your skin softer that is commonly used in the United
States and in Mexico.
�@
Notable rose growers
Some rose growers are known for their particular contributions to the field.
These include:
David Austin ("English" roses)
Joséphine de Beauharnais
Griffith Buck, professor of horticulture at Iowa State University from
1948 to 1985, hybridized nearly 90 rose varieties. Buck roses are known for
disease resistance and winter hardiness.
Conard-Pyle Co. (Star Roses)
Jules Gravereaux
Meilland
family
Jean Pernet, père
Joseph Pernet-Ducher
Suzuki Seizo
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Lilium
From Wikipedia,
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from
Lily)
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For the
song, see
Lilium (song).
��Lily��
redirects here. For other uses, see
Lily (disambiguation).
��Lilies��
redirects here. For other uses, see
Lilies (disambiguation).
g plants
normally growing from
bulbs, comprising a genus of about 110
species in the lily family,
Liliaceae. They are important as large showy flowering garden plants, and in
literature. Some of the bulbs have been consumed by people. The species in this
genus are the true lilies, while other plants with lily in the common name are
related to other groups of plants.
Contents
[hide]
1 Range
2 Botany
3 Species
4 Uses
4.1 Classification of garden forms
4.2 Propagation and growth
5 Names
6 See also
7 External links
[edit]
Range
Lilies are
native to the northern temperate regions. Their range in the
Old World extends across much of
Europe, the north
Mediterranean, across most of
Asia to
Japan, south to the
Nilgiri mountains in
India, and south to the
Philippines. In the
New World they extend from southern
Canada through much of the
United States. A few species formerly included within this genus have now
been placed in other genera. These include
Cardiocrinum and
Nomocharis.
They are
commonly adapted to either woodland habitats, often
montane, or sometimes to grassland habitats. A few can survive in marshland
and a single one is known to live as an
epiphyte (L. arboricola). In general they prefer moderately acidic or
lime-free soils.
[edit]
Botany
Lilies are
usually erect leafy stemmed herbs. The majority of species form naked or
tunic-less scaly underground
bulbs from which they overwinter. In some North American species the base of
the bulb develops into
rhizomes, on which numerous small bulbs are found. Some species develop
stolons. A few species form bulbs at or near the soil surface .
Many species
form stem-roots. With these, the bulb grows naturally at some depth in the soil,
and each year the new stem puts out
adventitious roots above the bulb as it emerges from the soil. These roots
are in addition to the basal roots that develop at the base of the bulb.
The large
flowers have three
petals along with three petal-like
sepals, often fragrant, and come in a range of colours ranging through
whites, yellows, oranges, pinks, reds, purples, bronze and even nearly black.
Markings include spots, brush strokes and picotees.
The plants are
summer flowering. Most species are
deciduous, but Lilium candidum bears a basal rosette of leaves for
much of the year. Flowers are formed at the top of a single erect stem, with
leaves being borne at intervals up the stem.
[edit]
Species
The following
is a partial list of the recognised species.
Lilium albanicum
Lilium amabile
Lilium amoenum
Lilium anhuiense
Lilium arboricola
Lilium auratum
�V Japanese golden rayed lily
Lilium bakerianum
Lilium bolanderi
Lilium bosniacum
- Bosnian lily
Lilium brevistylum
Lilium brownii
Lilium bulbiferum
�V
Orange lily
Lilium callosum
Lilium canadense
�V
Canada lily
Lilium candidum
�V
Madonna lily
Lilium carniolicum
Lilium catesbaei
Lilium cernuum
Lilium chalcedonicum
�V Turkscap lily
Lilium columbianum
Lilium concolor
Lilium dauricum
Lilium davidii
Lilium distichum
Lilium duchartrei
Lilium fargesii
Lilium floridum
Lilium formosanum
Lilium grayi
Lilium habaense
Lilium hansonii
Lilium heldreichii
Lilium henrici
Lilium henryi
�V Henry's lily
Lilium huidongense
Lilium humboldtii
�V
Humboldt's lily
Lilium iridollae
Lilium jankae
Lilium jinfushanense
Lilium kelleyanum
Lilium kelloggii
Lilium lancifolium
(syn. L. tigrinum) �V Tiger lily
Lilium lankongense
Lilium ledebourii
Lilium leichtlinii
Lilium leucanthum
Lilium lijiangense
Lilium longiflorum
�V Easter lily
Lilium lophophorum
Lilium maritimum
Lilium martagon
�V Martagon lily
Lilium matangense
Lilium medeoloides
Lilium medogense
Lilium michauxii
�V Carolina lily
Lilium michiganense
�V Michigan lily
Lilium monadelphum
Lilium nanum
Lilium neilgherrense
Lilium nepalense
Lilium occidentale
Lilium oxypetalum
Lilium papilliferum
Lilium paradoxum
Lilium pardalinum
�V Panther lily
Lilium parryi
Lilium parvum
Lilium philadelphicum
�V
Wood lily
Lilium pinifolium
Lilium pomponium
Lilium primulinum
Lilium pumilum
�V Korean lily
Lilium pyrenaicum
Lilium pyrophilum
Lilium regale
�V Regal lily
Lilium rhodopaeum
Lilium rosthornii
Lilium rubescens
Lilium saccatum
Lilium sargentiae
Lilium sempervivoideum
Lilium sherriffiae
Lilium souliei
Lilium speciosum
�V Japanese lily
Lilium stewartianum
Lilium sulphureum
Lilium superbum
Lilium taliense
Lilium tianschanicum
Lilium tsingtauense
Lilium wallichianum
Lilium wardii
Lilium washingtonianum
Lilium wenshanense
Lilium xanthellum
Lilium gloriosoides
[edit]
Uses
Many species
are widely grown in the garden in temperate and sub-tropical regions. Sometimes
they may also be grown as potted plants. A large number of ornamental hybrids
have been developed. They can be used in herbaceous borders, woodland and shrub
plantings, and as a patio plant.
Some lilies,
especially
Lilium longiflorum, as well as a few other hybrids, form important cut
flower crops. These tend to be forced for particular markets; for instance,
L. longiflorum for the
Easter trade, when it may be called the
Easter lily.
Lilium
bulbs are
starchy and edible as
root vegetables, although bulbs of some species may be very bitter. The
non-bitter bulbs of
L. lancifolium, L. pumilum, and especially L. brownii
(called
���X�F
in Chinese) are grown at large scale in
China as a luxury or health food, most often sold in dry form. They are
eaten especially in the summer, for their ability to reduce internal heat. They
may be reconstituted and
stir-fried, grated and used to thicken
soup, or processed to extract starch. Their texture and taste draw
comparison with the
potato, although the individual bulb scales are much smaller.
Although they
are believed to be safe for humans to eat, there are reports of nephrotoxicosis
(kidney
failure) in cats which have eaten some species of Lilium and
Hemerocallis
[1].
Lilies are
used as food plants by the
larvae of some
Lepidoptera species including
The Dun-bar.
Lilies are
considered the most common of flowers to be presented at funerals. The presence
of Lilies at funerals symbolizes that the soul of the departed has received
restored innocence after death.
[edit]
Classification of garden forms
Asiatic hybrid
flower
Numerous forms
are grown for the garden, and most of these are hybrids. They vary according to
their parent species, and are classified in the following broad groups;
Species
(Division IX). All natural species and naturally occurring forms are included
in this group.
Asiatic
hybrids (Division I).
These are plants with medium sized, upright or outward facing flowers, mostly
unscented. They are derived from central and East Asian species.
Martagon
hybrids (Division II).
These are based on L. martagon and L. hansonii. The flowers are
nodding, Turk's cap style (with the petals strongly recurved).
Candidum
hybrids (Division
III). This includes hybrids of L. candidum with several other mostly
European species.
American
hybrids (Division IV).
These are mostly taller growing forms, originally derived from L.
pardalinum. Many are clump-forming perennials with rhizomatous rootstocks.
Longiflorum hybrids
(Division V). These are cultivated forms of this species and its subspecies.
They are most important as plants for cut flowers, and are less often grown in
the garden than other hybrids.
Trumpet
lilies (Division VI),
including Aurelian hybrids. This group includes hybrids of many Asiatic
species, including L. regale and L. aurelianse. The flowers are
trumpet shaped, facing outward or somewhat downward, and tend to be strongly
fragrant, often especially night-fragrant.
Oriental
hybrids (Division
VII). These are based on hybrids of L. auratum and L. speciosum,
together with crossbreeds from several mainland Asiatic species. They are
fragrant, and the flowers tend to be outward facing. Plants tend to be tall,
and the flowers may be quite large. An example is
Lilium "Stargazer".
Other
hybrids (Division
VIII). Includes all other garden hybrids.
[edit]
Propagation and growth
Liliums can be
propagated in several ways;
by division
of the bulbs,
by
growing-on
bulbils which are
adventitious bulbs formed on the stem,
by scaling,
for which whole scales are detached from the bulb and planted to form a new
bulb,
by seed;
seed germination patterns are variable and can be complex.
[edit]
Names
The botanic
name Lilium is the
Latin form and is a
Linnaean name. The Latin name is derived from the
Greek leirion, which is generally assumed to be the
Madonna lily.
[2]
[edit]
See also
Lily Seed Germination types
RHS Lily Group
Seed Exchange
[3]]
[edit]
External links
Flora Europaea: Lilium
Flora of China: Lilium
Flora of Nepal: Lilium species list
Flora of North America: Lilium
Online Lily Register, over 9400 entries Lilium
de Florum: Lilium species
North American Lily Society
Royal Horticultural Society Lily Group
Gypsophila (Baby's-breath; Gypsophila
[1]
) is a genus of
about 100 species of
flowering plants in the family
Caryophyllaceae, native to
Europe,
Asia and north
Africa. Many
species are found on
calcium-rich
soils, including
gypsum, whence the name of the genus. Some species are also sometimes called
"baby's breath" or simply, "Gyp", among the floral industry. Its botanical name
means "lover of chalk", which is accurate in describing the type of soil in
which this plant grows.
They are
herbaceous
annual
and
perennial plants growing to 5-120 cm tall. The
leaves are
opposite, linear to narrow triangular, often falcate (sickle-shaped), 1-7 cm
long and 2-8 mm broad. The
flowers are
produced in large
inflorescences, which may be either dense or open and lax; each flower is
small, 3-10 mm diameter, with five white or pink petals.
Selected species
Gypsophila acutifolia - Sharp-leaved Gypsophila
Gypsophila altissima
Gypsophila aretioides
Gypsophila arrostii
Gypsophila bicolor
Gypsophila bungeana - Bunge's Gypsophila
Gypsophila capituliflora
Gypsophila cephalotes
Gypsophila cerastioides
Gypsophila davurica
Gypsophila desertorum
Gypsophila elegans
Gypsophila fastigiata - Fastigiate Gypsophila
Gypsophila huashanensis
Gypsophila licentiana
Gypsophila muralis - Annual Gypsophila
Gypsophila nana - Dwarf Gypsophila
Gypsophila oldhamiana
Gypsophila pacifica
Gypsophila paniculata - Common Gypsophila
Gypsophila patrinii
Gypsophila perfoliata - Perfoliate Gypsophila
Gypsophila petraea
Gypsophila pilosa - Turkish Baby's Breath
Gypsophila rokejeka - Soap root[2]
Gypsophila repens - Alpine Gypsophila
Gypsophila scorzonerifolia - Glandular Gypsophila
Gypsophila sericea
Gypsophila spinosa
Gypsophila tenuifolia
Gypsophila tschiliensis
�@
[edit]
Cultivation and uses
Gypsophilas are often grown as
ornamental plants in gardens; they are grown both as garden plants and also
valuable as a cut flower in
floristry
to add as a filler to flower bouquets. The most commonly encountered in gardens
are G. paniculata (a perennial species), G. elegans, and G.
muralis (both annual species). They are easily propagated from
seed, by cuttings,
or by root division before growth starts in the spring. Starting as a tiny seed,
the annuals and perennials
germinate
in ten to fifteen days, and can grow rapidly up to 50 cm in height. While they
prefer full sun, along with rich, light
soil; deficiencies
in poor soil constitution can be overcome by adding a general purpose
fertilizer,
as long as it is well drained.
Gypsophila paniculata has become an
invasive species in parts of
North
America.
Gypsophila rokejeka is used to provide
saponins in
the production of
halva[2]
Gypsophila species are used as food plants by the
larvae of some
Lepidoptera species including three case-bearers of the genus
Coleophora
which feed on G. fastigiata: C. kyffhusana, C. niveistrigella
(both of which feed exclusively on the plant) and C. vicinella.
Morphology
Flowering plants are heterosporangiate, producing two types of
reproductive spores).
The pollen
(male spores) and
ovules (female spores) are produced in different
organs, but the typical flower is a bisporangiate strobilus in that
it contains both organs.
A flower is regarded as a modified
stem
with shortened internodes and bearing, at its
nodes,
structures that may be highly modified
leaves.[1]
In essence, a flower structure forms on a modified shoot or axis with an
apical meristem
that does not grow continuously (growth is determinate). The stem is
called a pedicel,
the end of which is the torus or
receptacle.
The parts of a flower are arranged in
whorls on the
torus. The four main parts or whorls (starting from the base of the flower or
lowest node and working upwards) are as follows:
Calyx
�V the outer whorl of
sepals;
typically these are green, but are petal-like in some species.
Corolla
�V the whorl of
petals, which are usually thin, soft and colored to attract insects
that help the process of
pollination.
Androecium (from Greek andros oikia: man's house) �V one or two
whorls of stamens,
each a
filament topped by an
anther where
pollen is
produced. Pollen contains the male
gametes.
Gynoecium (from Greek gynaikos oikia: woman's house) �V one or
more pistils.
The female reproductive organ is the
carpel: this
contains an ovary with ovules (which contain female gametes). A pistil may
consist of a number of carpels merged together, in which case there is only
one pistil to each flower, or of a single individual carpel (the flower is
then called apocarpous). The sticky tip of the pistil, the
stigma, is
the receptor of pollen. The supportive stalk, the style becomes the pathway
for
pollen tubes to grow from pollen grains adhering to the stigma, to the
ovules, carrying the reproductive material.
Although the floral structure described above is considered the "typical"
structural plan, plant species show a wide variety of modifications from this
plan. These modifications have significance in the evolution of flowering plants
and are used extensively by botanists to establish relationships among plant
species. For example, the two subclasses of flowering plants may be
distinguished by the number of floral organs in each whorl:
dicotyledons typically having 4 or 5 organs (or a multiple of 4 or 5) in
each whorl and
monocotyledons having three or some multiple of three. The number of carpels
in a compound pistil may be only two, or otherwise not related to the above
generalization for monocots and dicots.
In the majority of species individual flowers have both pistils and stamens
as described above. These flowers are described by botanists as being perfect,
bisexual, or
hermaphrodite. However, in some species of plants the flowers are
imperfect or unisexual: having only either male (stamens) or female
(pistil) parts. In the latter case, if an individual plant is either male or
female the species is regarded as
dioecious. However, where unisexual male and female flowers Additional
discussions on floral modifications from the basic plan are presented in the
articles on each of the basic parts of the flower. In those species that have
more than one flower on an axis�Xso-called composite flowers�X the
collection of flowers is termed an
inflorescence; this term can also refer to the specific arrangements of
flowers on a stem. In this regard, care must be exercised in considering what a
����flower���� is. In botanical terminology, a single
daisy or
sunflower
for example, is not a flower but a flower
head�Xan
inflorescence composed of numerous tiny flowers (sometimes called florets). Each
of these flowers may be anatomically as described above. Many flowers have a
symmetry, if the perianth is bisected through the central axis from any point,
symmetrical halves are produced - the flower is called regular or actinomorphic
e.g. rose or trillium. When flowers are bisected and produce only one line that
produces symmetrical halves the flower is said to be irregular or zygomorphic.
e.g. snapdragon or most orchids.
�@
Floral formula
A floral formula is a way to represent the structure of a flower using
specific letters, numbers, and symbols. Typically, a general formula will be
used to represent the flower structure of a plant
family rather than a particular species. The following representations are
used:
Ca = calyx (sepal whorl; e.g. Ca5 = 5 sepals)
Co = corolla (petal whorl; e.g., Co3(x) = petals some multiple
of three )
Z = add if zygomorphic (e.g., CoZ6 = zygomorphic
with 6 petals)
A = androecium (whorl of stamens; e.g., A�� = many
stamens)
G = gynoecium (carpel or carpels; e.g., G1 =
monocarpous)
�@
x - to represent a "variable number"
�� - to represent "many"
�@
A floral formula would appear something like this:
Ca5Co5A10 - ��G1
Several additional symbols are sometimes used (see
Key to Floral Formulas).
�@
Pollination
Grains of pollen sticking to this bee will be transferred to the next
flower it visits
The primary purpose of a flower is
reproduction by the joining of pollen of one plant with the ovules of
another (or in some cases its own ovules) in order to form seed which grows into
the next generation of plants. Sexual reproduction produces genetically unique
offspring, allowing for
adaptation
to occur. As such, each flower has a specific design which best encourages the
transfer of this pollen. Many flowers are dependent upon the wind to move pollen
between flowers of the same species. Others rely on animals (especially
insects) to
accomplish this feat. Even large animals such as birds, bats, and
pygmy
possums can be employed. The period of time during which this process can
take place (the flower is fully expanded and functional) is called anthesis.
�@
Attraction methods
Bee orchid mimics a female bee in order to attract a male bee
pollinator
Many flowers in nature have evolved to attract animals to pollinate the
flower, the movements of the pollinating agent contributing to the opportunity
for genetic recombination within a dispersed plant population. Flowers that are
insect-pollinated are called entomophilous (literally "insect-loving").
Flowers commonly have glands called nectaries on their various parts that
attract these animals.
Birds and bees
are common
pollinators: both having color vision, thus opting for "colorful" flowers.
Some flowers have patterns, called
nectar
guides, that show pollinators where to look for nectar; they may be visible
to us or only under
ultraviolet light, which is visible to bees and some other insects. Flowers
also attract pollinators by
scent. Many of
their scents are pleasant to our sense of smell, but not all. Some plants, such
as
Rafflesia, the
titan arum,
and the North American
pawpaw (Asimina
triloba), are pollinated by
flies, so they
produce a scent
imitating rotting meat. Flowers pollinated by night visitors such as bats or
moths are especially likely to concentrate on scent - which can attract
pollinators in the dark - rather than color: most such flowers are white.
Still other flowers use mimicry to attract pollinators. Some species of
orchids, for example, produce flowers resembling female bees in color, shape,
and scent. Male bees move from one such flower to another in search of a mate.
�@
Pollination mechanism
The pollination mechanism employed by a plant depends on what method of
pollination is utilized.
Most flowers can be divided between two broad groups of pollination methods:
Entomophilous - flowers attract and use insects, bats, birds or other
animals to transfer pollen from one flower to the next. often they are
specialized in shape and have an arrangement of the stamens that ensures that
pollen grains are transferred to the bodies of the pollinator when it lands in
search of its attractant (such as nectar, pollen, or a mate). In pursuing this
attractant from many flowers of the same species, the pollinator transfers
pollen to the stigmas - arranged with equally pointed precision - of all of the
flowers it visits. Many flower rely on simple proximity between flower parts to
ensure pollination. Others, such as the
Sarracenia or
lady-slipper orchids, have elaborate designs to ensure pollination while
preventing
self-pollination.
Anemophilous - flowers use the wind to move pollen from one flower to
the next, examples include the
grasses,
Birch trees, Ragweed and Maples. They have no need to attract pollinators and
therefore tend not to be "showy" flowers. Whereas the pollen of entomophilous
flowers tends to be large-grained, sticky, and rich in
protein
(another "reward" for pollinators), anemophilous flower pollen is usually
small-grained, very light, and of little nutritional value to
insects, though
it may still be gathered in times of dearth. Honeybees and bumblebees actively
gather anemophilous corn (maize)
pollen, though it is of little value to them.
Some flowers are self pollinated and use flowers that never open or are self
pollinated before the flowers open, these flowers are called clestigomous. Many
Viola species and some Salvia have these types of flowers.
�@
Flower-pollinator relationships
Many flowers have close relationships with one or a few specific pollinating
organisms. Many flowers, for example, attract only one specific species of
insect, and therefore rely on that insect for successful reproduction. This
close relationship is often given as an example of
coevolution, as the flower and pollinator are thought to have developed
together over a long period of time to match each other's needs.
This close relationship compounds the negative effects of
extinction.
The extinction of either member in such a relationship would mean almost certain
extinction of the other member as well. Some
endangered plant species are so because of
shrinking pollinator populations.
�@
Fertilization and dispersal
ome flowers with both stamens and a pistil are capable of self-fertilization,
which does increase the chance of producing seeds but limits genetic variation.
The extreme case of self-fertilization occurs in flowers that always
self-fertilize, such as many
dandelions.
Conversely, many species of plants have ways of preventing self-fertilization.
Unisexual male and female flowers on the same plant may not appear or mature at
the same time, or pollen from the same plant may be incapable of fertilizing its
ovules. The latter flower types, which have chemical barriers to their own
pollen, are referred to as self-sterile or self-incompatible (see also:
Plant sexuality).
�@
Evolution
While land plants have existed for about 425 million years, the first ones
reproduced by a simple adaptation of their aquatic counterparts:
spores. In the
sea, plants -- and some animals -- can simply scatter out little living copies
of themselves to float away and grow elsewhere. This is how early plants, such
as the modern fern, are thought to have reproduced. But plants soon began
protecting these copies to deal with drying out and other abuse which is even
more likely on land than in the sea. The protection became the
seed...but not,
yet, flowers. Early seed-bearing plants include the
ginkgo,
conifers
(like pines), and fir
trees. The earliest fossil of a flowering plant,
Archaefructus liaoningensis, is dated about 125 million years old.[2]
Several groups of extinct gymnosperms, particularly
seed ferns,
have been proposed as the ancestors of flowering plants but there is no
continuous fossil evidence showing exactly how flowers evolved. The apparently
sudden appearance of relatively modern flowers in the fossil record posed such a
problem for the theory of evolution that it was called an "abominable mystery"
by
Charles Darwin. Recently discovered angiosperm fossils such as
Archaefructus, along with further discoveries of fossil gymnosperms, suggest
how angiosperm characteristics may have been acquired in a series of steps.
Recent DNA
analysis (molecular
systematics)[3][4]
show that
Amborella trichopoda, found on the Pacific island of
New
Caledonia, is the
sister
group to the rest of the flowering plants, and morphological studies[5]
suggest that it has features which may have been characteristic of the earliest
flowering plants.
A
Syrphid fly on a
Grape hyacinth
The general assumption is that the function of flowers, from the start, was
to involve other animals in the reproduction process. Pollen can be scattered
without bright colors and obvious shapes, which would therefore be a liability,
using the plant's resources, unless they provide some other benefit. One
proposed reason for the sudden, fully developed appearance of flowers is that
they evolved in an isolated setting like an island, or chain of islands, where
the plants bearing them were able to develop a highly specialized relationship
with some specific animal (a wasp, for example), the way many island species
develop today. This symbiotic relationship, with a hypothetical wasp bearing
pollen from one plant to another much the way
fig wasps
do today, could have eventually resulted in both the plant(s) and their partners
developing a high degree of specialization.
Island genetics is believed to be a common source of speciation, especially
when it comes to radical adaptations which seem to have required inferior
transitional forms. Note that the wasp example is not incidental; bees,
apparently evolved specifically for symbiotic plant relationships, are descended
from wasps.
Likewise, most
fruit used in plant reproduction comes from the enlargement of parts of the
flower. This fruit is frequently a tool which depends upon animals wishing to
eat it, and thus scattering the seeds it contains.
While many such
symbiotic relationships remain too fragile to survive competition with
mainland animals and spread, flowers proved to be an unusually effective means
of production, spreading (whatever their actual origin) to become the dominant
form of land plant life.
While there is only hard proof of such flowers existing about 130 million
years ago, there is some circumstantial evidence that they did exist up to 250
million years ago. A chemical used by plants to defend their flowers,
oleanane,
has been detected in fossil plants that old, including
gigantopterids[6],
which evolved at that time and bear many of the traits of modern, flowering
plants, though they are not known to be flowering plants themselves, because
only their stems and prickles have been found preserved in detail; one of the
earliest examples of
petrification.
The similarity in
leaf and stem
structure can be very important, because flowers are genetically just an
adaptation of normal leaf and stem components on plants, a combination of genes
normally responsible for forming new shoots.[7]
The most primitive flowers are thought to have had a variable number of flower
parts, often separate from (but in contact with) each other. The flowers would
have tended to grow in a spiral pattern, to be
bisexual
(in plants, this means both male and female parts on the same flower), and to be
dominated by the
ovary (female part). As flowers grew more advanced, some variations
developed parts fused together, with a much more specific number and design, and
with either specific sexes per flower or plant, or at least "ovary inferior".
Flower evolution continues to the present day; modern flowers have been so
profoundly influenced by humans that many of them cannot be pollinated in
nature. Many modern, domesticated flowers used to be simple weeds, which only
sprouted when the ground was disturbed. Some of them tended to grow with human
crops, and the prettiest did not get plucked because of their beauty, developing
a dependence upon and special adaptation to human affection.[8]
�@
Development
The molecular control of floral organ identity determination is fairly well
understood. In a simple model, three gene activities interact in a combinatorial
manner to determine the developmental identities of the organ primordia within
the floral
meristem. These gene functions are called A, B and C-gene functions. In the
first floral whorl only A-genes are expressed, leading to the formation of
sepals. In the second whorl both A- and B-genes are expressed, leading to the
formation of petals. In the third whorl, B and C genes interact to form stamens
and in the center of the flower C-genes alone give rise to carpels. The model is
based upon studies of
homeotic
mutants in Arabidopsis thaliana and snapdragon, Antirrhinum majus. For example,
in a loss of B-gene function mutant flower we get sepals in the first whorl as
usual, but also in the second whorl (the B-function lost that is needed for
petal development). In the third whorl the lack of B function but presence of
C-function mimics the fourth whorl, leading to the formation of carpels also in
the third whorl. See also
The ABC Model of Flower Development.
Most genes central in this model belong to the
MADS-box
genes and are
transcription factors that regulate the expression of the genes specific for
each floral organ.
�@
Flowering transition
The
transition to flowering is one of the major phase changes that a plant makes
during its life cycle. The transition must take place at a time that will ensure
maximal
reproductive success. To meet these needs a plant is able to interpret
important endogenous and environmental cues such as changes in
plant hormones levels and seasonable
temperature and
photoperiodchanges. Many perennial and most biennial plants require
vernalization to flower. The molecular interpretation of these signals
through genes such as CONSTANS and FLC ensures that flowering occurs at a time
that is favorable for
fertilization and the formation of
seeds[9].
Flower formation is initiated at the ends of stems, and involves a number of
different physiological and morphological changes. The first step is the
transformation of the vegetative stem primordia into floral primordia. This
occurs as biochemical changes take place to change cellular differentiation of
leaf, bud and stem tissues into tissue that will grow into the reproductive
organs. Growth of the central part of the stem tip stops or flattens out and the
sides develop protuberances in a whorled or spiral fashion around the outside of
the stem end. These protuberances develop into the sepals, petals, stamens, and
carpels. Once this process begins, in most plants, it cannot be reversed and the
stems develop flowers, even if the initial start of the flower formation event
was dependent of some environmental cue. Once the process begins, even if that
cue is removed the stem will continue to develop a flower.
�@
Uses by humans
�@
In everyday life
In modern times, people have sought ways to cultivate, buy, wear, or just be
around flowers and blooming plants, partly because of their agreeable
smell. Around the
world, people use flowers for a wide range of events and functions that,
cumulatively, encompass one's lifetime:
For new births or
Christenings
As a corsage or boutonniere to be worn at social functions or for holidays
For wedding flowers for the bridal party, and decorations for the hall
As brightening decorations within the home
As a gift of remembrance for bon voyage parties, welcome home parties, and
"thinking of you" gifts
For funeral
flowers and expressions of
sympathy
for the grieving
People therefore grow flowers around their homes, dedicate entire parts of
their living space to
flower gardens, pick wildflowers, or buy flowers from
florists who
depend on an entire network of commercial growers and shippers to support their
trade.
�@
Symbolism
Lilies are often used to denote life or resurrection
Many flowers have important
symbolic
meanings in Western culture. The practice of assigning meanings to flowers is
known as
floriography. Some of the more common examples include:
Red roses are
given as a symbol of love, beauty, and passion.
Poppies are
a symbol of consolation in time of death. In the
UK,
Australia and
Canada, red poppies are worn to commemorate soldiers who have died in
times of war.
Irises/Lily
are used in burials as a symbol referring to "resurrection/life". It is also
associated with stars (sun) and its petals blooming/shining.
Daisies are a symbol of innocence.
Flowers within art are also representative of the female genitalia, as seen
in the works of artists such as
Georgia O'Keefe,
Imogen Cunningham,
Veronica Ruiz de Velasco, and
Judy
Chicago, and in fact in Asian and western classical art.
�@
Edible flowers
Flowers provide less food than other major plants parts (seeds,
fruits,
roots,
stems
and leaves) but
they provide several important foods and
spices. Flower
vegetables include
broccoli,
cauliflower and
artichoke.
The most expensive spice,
saffron,
consists of dried stigmas of a
crocus. Other
flower spices are
cloves and capers.
Hops flowers are
used to flavor beer.
Marigold
flowers are fed to
chickens to
give their egg yolks a golden yellow color, which consumers find more desirable.
Dandelion
flowers are often made into wine. Bee
Pollen, pollen
collected from bees, is considered a health food by some people.
Honey consists of
bee-processed flower nectar and is often named for the type of flower, e.g.
orange blossom honey,
clover honey
and tupelo
honey.
Hundreds of fresh flowers are edible but few are widely marketed as food.
They are often used to add color and flavor to salads.
Squash flowers are dipped in breadcrumbs and fried. Edible flowers include
nasturtium,
chrysanthemum,
carnation,
cattail,
honeysuckle,
chicory,
cornflower,
Canna,
and sunflower.
Some edible flowers are sometimes candied such as
daisy and
rose (you may also
come across a candied
pansy).
�@
Floristry
Under Construction
Main and related articles at:
Floristry,
Flower garden,
Gardening,
and
List of flowers Flowers can also be made into tea. Dried flowers such as
chrysanthemum, rose, jasmine, camomile are infused into tea both for their
fragrance and medical properties. Sometimes, they are also mixed with tea leaves
for the added fragrance.
�@
In the arts
The great variety of delicate and beautiful flowers has inspired the works of
numerous poets, especially from the 18th-19th century
Romantic era. Famous examples include
William Wordsworth's
I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud and
William Blake's Ah! Sun-Flower.
Because of their varied and colorful appearance, flowers have long been a
favorite subject of visual artists as well. Some of the most celebrated
paintings from well-known painters are of flowers, such as
Van Gogh's
sunflowers series or
Monet's
water lilies.
Flowers are also dried, freeze dried and pressed in order to create
permanent, three-dimensional pieces of
flower art.
�@
Mythology
The Roman goddess of flowers, gardens, and the season of Spring is
Flora. The Greek goddess of spring, flowers and nature is
Chloris.
In Hindu
mythology, flowers have a significant status.
Vishnu, one of
the three major gods in the
Hindu system, is
often depicted standing straight on a
lotus flower.[10]
Apart from the association with
Vishnu, the
Hindu tradition also considers the lotus to have spiritual significance.[11]
For example, it figures in the Hindu stories of creation.[12]
�@
References
Eames, A. J. (1961) Morphology of the Angiosperms McGraw-Hill Book
Co., New York.
Esau, Katherine (1965) Plant Anatomy (2nd ed.) John Wiley & Sons,
New York.
Most Relevant Link:
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