Link3_taiwanflorist
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Link3_taiwanflorist

发布日期:2025-01-04 15:30    点击次数:165

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�f�`�G���I�f�A�կ��f�B�\�K�f�B�ׯf�C �ή`�G���ΡB���j��B�H�ΡB�������B�����ΡB�Ѥ��C 1 ���a��(Anthocerotophyta) 2 �a����(Bryophyta) 2.1 Andreaeobryopsida 2.2 Andreaeopsida 2.3 Bryopsida 2.3.1 Bryidae 2.3.2 Dicranidae 2.3.3 Diphysciidae 2.3.4 Funariidae 2.4 Polytrichopsida 2.5 Sphagnopsida 2.6 Takakiopsida 3 ���a��(Marchantiophyta) 3.1 Jungermanniopsida 3.1.1 Jungermanniidae 3.1.2 Metzgeriidae 3.2 Marchantiopsida 3.2.1 Marchantiidae 3.2.2 Sphaerocarpidae 4 �۪Q�Ӫ���(Lycopodiophyta) 4.1 �����(Isoetopsida) 4.2 �۪Q��(Lycopodiopsida) 5 ���`�Ӫ���(Equisetophyta) 5.1 ������(Sphenopsida) 6 �u����(Filicophyta) 6.1 ���n����(Filicopsida) 6.2 �p�n����(Eusporangiopsida) 7 �����Ӫ���(Psilotophyta) 7.1 �Q������(Psilopsida) 8 �ؤl�Ӫ��� �]Spermatophyla�^ 8.1 �r�l�Ӫ��Ȫ� Gymnospermae 8.1.1 �ȧ��� (Ginkgopsida) 8.1.2 �Q�f�� (Coniferopsida) 8.1.3 Ĭ�K�� (Cycadopsida) 8.1.4 �R���ú� (Gnetopsida) 8.1.5 ��������(Taxopsida) 8.2 �Q�l�Ӫ��Ȫ�(������)Angiospermae��Magnoliophyta��flowering plants 8.2.1 ��l���Ӫ���(�ʦX��) Liliopsida 8.2.1.1 �ʦX�Ⱥ� Liliidae 8.2.1.2 �A�m�Ⱥ� Alismatidae 8.2.1.3 ���q�Ⱥ� Arecidae 8.2.1.4 �n���Ⱥ� Commelinidae 8.2.1.5 ���Ⱥ� Zingiberidae 8.2.2 ���l���Ӫ���(������) Magnoliopsida 8.2.2.1 �����Ⱥ� Magnoliidae 8.2.2.2 ���\���Ⱥ� Hamamelidae 8.2.2.3 �ۦ˨Ⱥ� Caryophyllidae 8.2.2.4 ��ٲ�G�Ⱥ� Dilleniidae 8.2.2.5 �����Ⱥ� Rosidae 8.2.2.6 ��Ⱥ� Asteridae 9 �Ѩ� �@ [�s��] ���a��(Anthocerotophyta) ���a��(Anthocerotales) ���a��(Anthocerotaceae) �@ [�s��] �a����(Bryophyta) �@ [�s��] Andreaeobryopsida Andreaeobryales Andreaeobryaceae �@ [�s��] Andreaeopsida Andreaeales Andreaeaceae �@ [�s��] Bryopsida �@ [�s��] Bryidae Bryales Aulacomniaceae Bartramiaceae Bryaceae Leptostomataceae Mniaceae Orthodontiaceae Phyllodrepaniaceae Hedwigiales Hedwigiaceae Helicophyllaceae Rhacocarpaceae Hookeriales Adelotheciaceae Daltoniaceae Garovagliaceae Hookeriaceae Hypopterygiaceae Leucomiaceae Pilotrichaceae Ptychomniaceae Hypnales Amblystegiaceae Anomodontaceae Brachytheciaceae Calliergonaceae Campyliaceae Catagoniaceae Climaciaceae Cryphaeaceae Echinodiaceae Entodontaceae Fabroniaceae Fontinalaceae Helodiaceae Hylocomiaceae Hypnaceae Lembophyllaceae Leptodontaceae Lepyrodontaceae Leskeaceae Leucodontaceae Meteoriaceae Myriniaceae Myuriaceae Neckeraceae Orthorrhynchiaceae Phyllogoniaceae Plagiotheciaceae Pleuroziopsidaceae Prionodontaceae Pterigynandraceae Pterobryaceae Regmatodontaceae Rhytidiaceae Rigodiaceae Rutenbergiaceae Sematophyllaceae Stereophyllaceae Symphyodontaceae Theliaceae Thuidiaceae Trachylomataceae Orthotrichales Orthotrichaceae Rhizogoniales Calomniaceae Cyrtopodaceae Hypnodendraceae Mitteniaceae Pterobryellaceae Racopilaceae Rhizogoniaceae Spiridentaceae Splachnales Catoscopiaceae Meesiaceae Splachnaceae �@ [�s��] Dicranidae Archidiales Archidiaceae Dicranales Bruchiaceae Bryoxiphiaceae Dicnemonaceae Dicranaceae Ditrichaceae Erpodiaceae Eustichiaceae Fissidentaceae Leucobryaceae Nanobryaceae Rhabdoweisiaceae Rhachitheciaceae Schistostegaceae Grimmiales Drummondiaceae Grimmiaceae Ptychomitriaceae Scouleriaceae Pottiales Bryobartramiaceae Calymperaceae Cinclidotaceae Ephemeraceae Pottiaceae Serpotortellaceae Seligeriales Seligeriaceae Wardiaceae �@ [�s��] Diphysciidae Diphysciales Diphysciaceae �@ [�s��] Funariidae Encalyptales Encalyptaceae Funariales Disceliaceae Funariaceae Gigaspermaceae Timmiales Timmiaceae �@ [�s��] Polytrichopsida Polytrichales Polytrichaceae Tetraphidales Buxbaumiaceae Oedipodiaceae Tetraphidaceae �@ [�s��] Sphagnopsida Sphagnales Ambuchananiaceae Sphagnaceae �@ [�s��] Takakiopsida Takakiales Takakiaceae �@ [�s��] ���a��(Marchantiophyta) �@ [�s��] Jungermanniopsida �@ [�s��] Jungermanniidae Jungermanniales Antheliineae Antheliaceae Balantiopsidineae Balantiopsidaceae Brevianthineae Brevianthaceae Chonecoleaceae Cephaloziineae Adelanthaceae Cephaloziaceae Cephaloziellaceae Herbertineae Herbertaceae Pseudolepicoleaceae Trichotemnomataceae Jungermanniineae Gymnomitriaceae Jungermanniaceae Mesoptychiaceae Scapaniaceae 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�w�ӧG�m�N�̾���@�]�p�M��ܪ��~�ئӽT�w�C�@��Ө��A�ĥγ�Ʃw�ӡA��Z3-4m�A�趡�Z1-2m�A�o�˥i�H�Φ��۵M�����X�ĪG�H��ױj�����Iŧ�C��� �w�Ӥ]�Ϻ޲z��[��K�A�ר�O�v�ΡB�v�f�M�������󵥤譱�C���ǺشӪ̿�����ƺشӡC���ƺشӥi�H�󦳮Ħa�Q�Τg�a�귽�A�P�ɤ]��A�X�Y�ǫ~�ءA������� �e�f���o�͡A�ר�b����a�ϡA�Ӯ趡���Ů�y�q�ܮt�C�w�Ӧ椧�����Z���n�ھکw�ӫ~�س̲ת��𫬤j�p�M�ϥΪ�����өw    Rose �@ Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae �@ Division: Magnoliophyta �@ Class: Magnoliopsida �@ Order: Rosales �@ Family: Rosaceae �@ Subfamily: Rosoideae �@ Genus: Rosa L. �@ Species Between 100 and 150, see list A rose is a flowering shrub of the genus Rosa, and the flower of this shrub. There are more than a hundred species of wild roses, all from the northern hemisphere and mostly from temperate regions. The species form a group of generally prickly shrubs or climbers, and sometimes trailing plants, reaching 2�V5 m tall, rarely reaching as high as 20 m by climbing over other plants. The name originates from Latin rosa, borrowed through Oscan from colonial Greek in southern Italy: rhodon (Aeolic form: wrodon), from Aramaic wurrdā, from Assyrian wurtinnu, from Old Iranian *warda (cf. Armenian vard, Avestan warda, Sogdian ward, Parthian wâr). Rose hips are sometimes eaten, mainly for their vitamin C content. They are usually pressed and filtered to make rose-hip syrup, as the fine hairs surrounding the seeds are unpleasant to eat (resembling itching powder). They can also be used to make herbal tea, jam, jelly and marmalade. 1 Botany 1.1 Species 2 Pests and diseases 3 Cultivation 3.1 Pruning 3.1.1 Deadheading 4 History 5 Culture 5.1 Symbolism 5.2 In art 5.3 Quotes 6 Perfume 7 Notable rose growers 8 See also 9 Notes �@ Botany The leaves of most species are 5�V15 cm long, pinnate, with (3�V) 5�V9 (�V13) leaflets and basal stipules; the leaflets usually have a serrated margin, and often a few small prickles on the underside of the stem. The vast majority of roses are deciduous, but a few (particularly in southeast Asia) are evergreen or nearly so. The flowers of most species roses have five petals, with the exception of Rosa sericea, which often has only four. Each petal is divided into two distinct lobes and are usually white or pink, though in a few species yellow or red. Beneath the petals are five sepals (or in the case of some Rosa sericea, four). These may be long enough to be visible when viewed from above and appear as green points alternating with the rounded petals. The ovary is inferior, developing below the petals and sepals. The aggregate fruit of the rose is a berry-like structure called a rose hip. Rose species that produce open-faced flowers are attractive to pollinating bees and other insects, thus more apt to produce hips. Many of the domestic cultivars are so tightly petalled that they do not provide access for pollination. The hips of most species are red, but a few (e.g. Rosa pimpinellifolia) have dark purple to black hips. Each hip comprises an outer fleshy layer, the hypanthium, which contains 5�V160 "seeds" (technically dry single-seeded fruits called achenes) embedded in a matrix of fine, but stiff, hairs. Rose hips of some species, especially the Dog Rose (Rosa canina) and Rugosa Rose (Rosa rugosa), are very rich in vitamin C, among the richest sources of any plant. The hips are eaten by fruit-eating birds such as thrushes and waxwings, which then disperse the seeds in their droppings. Some birds, particularly finches, also eat the seeds. While the sharp objects along a rose stem are commonly called "thorns", they are actually prickles �X outgrowths of the epidermis (the outer layer of tissue of the stem). True thorns, as produced by e.g. Citrus or Pyracantha, are modified stems, which always originate at a node and which have nodes and internodes along the length of the thorn itself. Rose prickles are typically sickle-shaped hooks, which aid the rose in hanging onto other vegetation when growing over it. Some species such as Rosa rugosa and R. pimpinellifolia have densely packed straight spines, probably an adaptation to reduce browsing by animals, but also possibly an adaptation to trap wind-blown sand and so reduce erosion and protect their roots (both of these species grow naturally on coastal sand dunes). Despite the presence of prickles, roses are frequently browsed by deer. A few species of roses only have vestigial prickles that have no points. �@ Species Rosa multiflora Further information: List of Rosa species Some representative rose species Rosa canina �X Dog Rose, Briar Bush Rosa chinensis �X China Rose Rosa dumalis �X Glaucous Dog Rose Rosa gallica �X Gallic Rose, French Rose Rosa gigantea (syn. R. x odorata gigantea) Rosa glauca (syn. R. rubrifolia) �X Redleaf Rose Rosa laevigata (syn. R. sinica) �X Cherokee Rose, Camellia Rose, Mardan Rose Rosa multiflora �X Multiflora Rose Rosa persica (syn. Hulthemia persica, R. simplicifolia) Rosa roxburghii �X Chestnut Rose, Burr Rose Rosa rubiginosa (syn. R. eglanteria) �X Eglantine, Sweet Brier Rosa rugosa �X Rugosa Rose, Japanese Rose Rosa spinosissima �X Scotch Rose Rosa stellata �X Gooseberry Rose, Sacramento Rose Rosa virginiana (syn. R. lucida) �X Virginia Rose �@ Pests and diseases Roses are subject to several diseases. The most serious is rose rust (Phragmidium mucronatum), a species of rust fungus, which can defoliate the plant. More common, though less debilitating, are rose black spot, caused by the fungus Diplocarpon rosae, which makes circular black spots on the leaves in summer, and powdery mildew, caused by Sphaerotheca pannosa. Fungal diseases are best solved by a preventative fungicidal spray program rather than by trying to cure an infection after it is visible. After the disease is visible, its spread can be minimized through pruning and use of fungicides although actual infection cannot be reversed. Some rose varieties are considerably less susceptible than others to fungal disease. The main insect pest affecting roses is the aphid (greenfly), which sucks the sap and weakens the plant. Ladybirds are a predator of aphids and should be encouraged in the rose garden. Spraying with insecticide is often recommended but should be done with care to minimize loss of beneficial insects. Roses are also used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species; see list of Lepidoptera which feed on Roses. �@ Cultivation See also: Rose cultivars named after celebrities �@ �@ �@ �@ �@ �@ Roses are one of the most popular garden shrubs, as well as the most popular and commonly-sold florists' flowers. In addition to their great economic importance as a florists' crop, roses are also of great value to the perfume industry. Many thousands of rose hybrids and cultivars have been bred and selected for garden use, mostly double-flowered with many or all of the stamens mutated into additional petals. As long ago as 1840 a collection numbering over one thousand different cultivars, varieties and species was possible when a rosarium was planted by Loddiges nursery for Abney Park Cemetery, an early Victorian garden cemetery and arboretum in England. Twentieth-century rose breeders generally emphasized size and color, producing large, attractive blooms with little or no scent. Many wild and "old-fashioned" roses, by contrast, have a strong sweet scent. Roses thrive in temperate climates, though certain species and cultivars can flourish in sub-tropical and even tropical climates, especially when grafted onto appropriate rootstock. There is no single system of classification for garden roses. In general, however, roses are placed in one of three main groups: Wild Roses �X The wild roses includes the species listed above and some of their hybrids. Old Garden Roses �X Most Old Garden Roses are classified into one of the following groups. In general, Old Garden Roses of European or Mediterranean origin are once-blooming shrubs, with notably fragrant, double-flowered blooms primarily in shades of white, pink and red. The shrubs' foliage tends to be highly disease-resistant, and they generally bloom only on two-year-old canes. Alba �X Literally "white roses", derived from R. arvensis and the closely allied R. alba. These are some of the oldest garden roses, probably brought to Great Britain by the Romans. The shrubs flower once yearly in the spring with blossoms of white or pale pink. The shrubs frequently feature gray-green foliage and a climbing habit of growth . Examples: 'Alba Semiplena', 'White Rose of York'. Gallica �X The gallica roses have been developed from R. gallica, which is a native of central and southern Europe. They flower once in the summer over low shrubs rarely over 4' tall. Unlike most other once-blooming Old Garden Roses, the gallica class includes shades of red, maroon and deep purplish crimson. Examples: 'Cardinal de Richelieu', 'Charles de Mills', 'Rosa Mundi' (R. gallica versicolor). Damask �X Robert de Brie is given credit for bringing them from Persia to Europe sometime between 1254 and 1276, although there is evidence from ancient Roman frescoes that at least one damask rose, the Autumn Damask, existed in Europe for hundreds of years prior. Summer damasks (crosses between gallica roses and R. phoenicea) bloom once in summer. Autumn damasks (Gallicas crossed with R. moschata) bloom again later, in the autumn. Shrubs tend to have rangy to sprawly growth habits and vicious thorns. The flowers typically have a more loose petal formation than gallicas, as well as a stronger, tangy fragrance. Examples: 'Ispahan', 'Madame Hardy'. Centifolia (or Provence) �X These roses, raised in the seventeenth century in the Netherlands, are named for their "one hundred" petals; they are often called "cabbage" roses due to the globular shape of the flowers. The result of damask roses crossed with albas, the centifolias are all once-flowering. As a class, they are notable for their inclination to produce mutations of various sizes and forms, including moss roses and some of the first miniature roses (see below) . Examples: 'Centifolia', 'Paul Ricault'. Moss �X Mutations of primarily centifolia roses (or sometimes damasks), these have a mossy excrescence on the stems and sepals that often emits a pleasant woodsy or balsam scent when rubbed. Moss roses are cherised for this unique trait, but as a group they have contributed nothing to the development of new rose classifications. Moss roses with centifolia background are once-flowering; some moss roses exhibit repeat-blooming, indicative of Autumn Damask parentage. Example: 'Common Moss' (centifolia-moss), 'Alfred de Dalmas' (Autumn Damask moss). China �X The China roses were grown in East Asia for thousands of years and finally reached Western Europe in the late 1700s. Compared to the aforementioned European rose classes, the China roses had smaller, less fragrant, more poorly formed blooms carried over twiggier, more cold-sensitive shrubs. Yet they possessed the amazing ability to bloom repeatedly throughout the summer and into late autumn, unlike their European counterpants. This made they highly desirable for hybridization purposes in the early 1800s. The flowers of China roses were also notable for their tendency to "suntan," or darken over time �X unlike the blooms of European roses, which tended to fade after opening. Four China roses ('Slater's Crimson China', 1792; 'Parsons' Pink China', 1793; 'Hume's Blush China', 1809; and 'Parks' Yellow Tea Scented China', 1824) were brought to Europe in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. This brought about the creation of the first classes of repeat-flowering Old Garden Roses, and later the Modern Garden Roses. Examples: 'Old Blush China', 'Mutabilis'. Portland �X The Portland roses represent the first group of crosses between China roses and European roses, specifically gallicas and damasks. They were named after the Duchess of Portland who received (from Italy in 1800) a rose then known as R. paestana or 'Scarlet Four Seasons' Rose' (now known simply as 'The Portland Rose'). The whole class of Portland roses was thence developed from that one rose. The first repeat-flowering class of rose with fancy European-style blossoms, they are mostly descended from hybrids between damask and China roses. The plants tend to be fairly short and shrubby, with proportionately short flower stalks. Example: 'James Veitch', 'Rose de Rescht', 'Comte de Chambourd'. Bourbon �X Bourbons originated on l'Île de Bourbon (now called Réunion) off the coast of Madagascar in the Indian Ocean. They are most likely the result of a cross between the Autumn Damask and the 'Old Blush' China rose, both of which were frequently used as hedging materials on the island. They flower repeatedly over vigorous, frequently semi-climbing shrubs with glossy foliage and purple-tinted canes. They were first Introduced in France in 1823. Examples: 'Louise Odier', 'Mme. Pierre Oger', 'Zéphirine Drouhin'. Noisette �X The first Noisette rose was raised as a hybrid seedling by a South Carolina rice planter named John Champneys. Its parents were the China Rose 'Parson's Pink' and the autumn-flowering musk rose (Rosa moschata), resulting in a vigorous climbing rose producing huge clusters of small pink flowers from spring to fall. Champneys sent seedlings of his rose (called 'Champneys' Pink Cluster') to his gardening friend, Philippe Noisette, who in turn sent plants to his brother Louis in Paris, who then introduced 'Blush Noisette' in 1817. The first Noisettes were small-blossomed, fairly winter-hardy climbers, but later infusions of Tea rose genes created a Tea-Noisette subclass with larger flowers, smaller clusters, and considerably reduced winter hardiness. Examples: 'Blush Noisette', 'Mme. Alfred Carriere' (Noisette), 'Marechal Niel' (Tea-Noisette). (See French and German articles on Noisette roses) Tea �X The result of crossing two of the original China roses ('Hume's Blush China' and 'Parks' Yellow Tea Scented China') with various Bourbons and Noisette roses, tea roses are considerably more tender than other Old Garden Roses (due to cold-tender Rosa gigantea in the ancestry of the 'Parks' Yellow' rose). The teas are repeat-flowering roses, named for their fragrance being reminiscent of Chinese black tea (although this is not always the case). The color range includes pastel shades of white, pink and yellow, and the petals tend to roll back at the edges, producing a petal with a pointed tip. The individual flowers of many cultivars are semi-pendent and nodding, due to weak flower stalks. Examples: 'Lady Hillingdon', 'Maman Cochet'. Hybrid Perpetual �X The dominant class of roses in Victorian England, they first emerged in 1838 and were derived to a great extent from the Bourbons. They became the most popular garden and florist roses of northern Europe at the time, as the tender tea roses would not thrive in cold climates. The "perpetual" in the name hints at repeat-flowering, but many varieties of this class had poor reflowering habits; the tendency was for a massive spring bloom, followed by either scattered summer flowering, a smaller autumn burst, or sometimes nothing at all until next spring. Due to a limited color palette (white, pink, red) and lack of reliable repeat-bloom, the hybrid perpetuals were ultimately overshadowed by their own descendants, the Hybrid Teas. Examples: 'Ferdinand Pichard', 'Reine Des Violettes', 'Paul Neyron'. Bermuda "Mystery" Roses �X A group of several dozen "found" roses that have been grown in Bermuda for at least a century. The roses have significant value and interest for those growing roses in tropical and semi-tropical regions, since they are highly resistant to both nematode damage and the fungal diseases that plague rose culture in hot, humid areas, and capable of blooming in hot and humid weather. Most of these roses are likely Old Garden Rose cultivars that have otherwise dropped out of cultivation, or sports thereof. They are "mystery roses" because their "proper" historical names have been lost. Tradition dictates that they are named after the owner of the garden where they were rediscovered. Miscellaneous �X There are also a few smaller classes (such as Scots, Sweet Brier) and some climbing classes of old roses (including Ayrshire, Climbing China, Laevigata, Sempervirens, Boursault, Climbing Tea, and Climbing Bourbon). Those classes with both climbing and shrub forms are often grouped together. Modern Garden Roses �X Classification of modern roses can be quite confusing because many modern roses have old garden roses in their ancestry and their form varies so much. The classifications tend to be by growth and flowering characteristics, such as "large-flowered shrub", "recurrent, large-flowered shrub", "cluster-flowered", "rambler recurrent", or "ground-cover non-recurrent". The following includes the most notable and popular classifications of Modern Garden Roses: Hybrid Tea �X The favourite rose for much of the history of modern roses, hybrid teas were initially created by hybridizing Hybrid Perpetuals with Tea roses in the late 1800s. 'La France,' created in 1867, is universally acknowledged as the first indication of a new class of roses. Hybrid teas exhibit traits midway between both parents: hardier than the teas but less hardy than the hybrid perpetuals, and more everblooming than the hybrid perpetuals but less so than the teas. The flowers are well-formed with large, high-centered buds, and each flowering stem typically terminates in a single shapely bloom. The shrubs tend to be stiffly upright and sparsely foliaged, which today is often seen as a liability in the landscape. The hybrid tea class is important in being the first class of roses to include genes from the old Austrian brier rose (Rosa foetida). This resulted in an entirely new color range for roses: shades of deep yellow, apricot, copper, orange, true scarlet, yellow bicolors, lavender, gray, and even brown were now possible. The new color range did much to skyrocket hybrid tea popularity in the 20th century, but these colors came at a price: Rosa foetida also passed on a tendency toward disease-susceptibility, scentless blooms, and an intolerance of pruning, to its descendants. Hybrid teas became the single most popular class of garden rose of the 20th century; today, their reputation as being more high maintenance than many other rose classes has led to a decline in hybrid tea popularity among gardeners and landscapers in favor of lower-maintenance "landscape" roses. The hybrid tea remains the standard rose of the floral industry, however, and is still favoured in small gardens in formal situations. Examples: 'Peace', 'Mr. Lincoln,' 'Double Delight.' Polyantha �X Literally "many-flowered" roses, from the Greek "poly" (many) and "anthos" (flower). Originally derived from crosses between two East Asian species (Rosa chinensis and R. multiflora), polyanthas first appeared in France in the late 1800s alongside the hybrid teas. They featured short plants �X some compact, others spreading in habit �X with tiny blooms (1" in diameter on average) carried in large sprays, in the typical rose colors of white, pink and red. Their main claim to fame was their prolific bloom: From spring to fall, a healthy polyantha shrub might be literally covered in flowers, creating a strong color impact in the landscape. Polyantha roses are still regarded as low-maintenance, disease-resistant garden roses today, and remain popular for that reason. Examples: 'Cecile Brunner', 'The Fairy', 'Red Fairy'. Floribunda �X Rose breeders quickly saw the value in crossing polyanthas with hybrid teas, to create roses with that bloomed with the polyantha profusion, but with hybrid tea floral beauty and color range. In 1909, the first polyantha/hybrid tea cross, 'Gruss an Aachen,' was created, with characteristics midway between both parent classes. As the larger, more shapely flowers and hybrid-tea-like growth habit separated these new roses from polyanthas and hybrid teas alike, a new class was created and named Floribunda, Latin for "many-flowering." Typical floribundas feature stiff shrubs, smaller and bushier than the average hybrid tea but less dense and sprawling than the average polyantha. The flowers are often smaller than hybrid teas but are carried in large sprays, giving a better floral effect in the garden. Floribundas are found in all hybrid tea colors and with the classic hybrid tea-shaped blossom, sometimes differing from hybrid teas only in their cluster-flowering habit. Today they are still used in large bedding schemes in public parks and similar spaces. Examples: 'Dainty Maid', 'Iceberg', 'Tuscan Sun'. Grandiflora �X Grandifloras (Latin for "large-flowered") were the class of roses created in the mid 1900s to designate back-crosses between hybrid teas and floribundas that fit neither category �X specifically, the 'Queen Elizabeth' rose, which was introduced in 1954[1]. Grandiflora shrubs are typically larger than either hybrid teas or floribundas, and feature hybrid tea-style flowers borne in small clusters of three to five, similar to a floribunda. Grandifloras maintained some popularity from about the 1950s to the 1980s but today they are much less popular than either the hybrid teas or the floribundas. Examples: 'Queen Elizabeth', 'Comanche,' 'Montezuma'. Miniature �X All of the classes of Old Garden Roses �X gallicas, centifolias, etc. �X had corresponding miniature forms, although these were once-flowering just as their larger forms were. As with the standard-sized varieties, miniature Old Garden roses were crossed with repeat-blooming Asian species to produce everblooming miniature roses. Today, miniature roses are represented by twiggy, repeat-flowering shrubs ranging from 6" to 36" in height, with most falling in the 12"�V24" height range. Blooms come in all the hybrid tea colors; many varieties also emulate the classic high-centered hybrid tea flower shape. Miniature roses are often marketed and sold by the floral industry as houseplants, but it is important to remember that these plants are largely descended from outdoor shrubs native to temperate regions; thus, most miniature rose varieties require an annual period of cold dormancy to survive. Examples: 'Petite de Hollande' (Miniature Centifolia, once-blooming), 'Cupcake' (Modern Miniature, repeat-blooming). Climbing/Rambling �X As is the case with Miniature roses, all aforementioned classes of roses, both Old and Modern, have "climbing" forms, whereby the canes of the shrubs grow much longer and more flexible than the normal ("bush") forms. In the Old Garden Roses, this is often simply the natural growth habit of many cultivars and varieties; in many Modern roses, however, climbing roses are the results of spontaneous mutations. For example, 'Climbing Peace' is designated as a "Climbing Hybrid Tea," for it is genetically identical to the normal "shrub" form of the 'Peace' hybrid tea rose, except that its canes are long and flexible, i.e. "climbing." Most Climbing roses grow anywhere from 8'�V20' in height and exhibit repeat-bloom. Rambler roses, although technically a separate class, are often lumped together with climbing roses. They also exhibit long, flexible canes, but are distinguished from true climbers in two ways: A larger overall size (20'�V30' tall is common), and a once-blooming habit. It should be noted that both climbing roses and rambling roses are not true vines such as ivy, clematis or wisteria; they lack the ability to cling to supports on their own, and must be manually trained and tied over structures such as arbors and pergolas. Examples: 'Blaze' (repeat-blooming climber), 'American Pillar' (once-blooming rambler). English/David Austin �X Although not officially recognized as a separate class of roses by any established rose authority, English (aka David Austin) roses are often set aside as such by consumers and retailers alike. They were conceptualized and created in the 1960s by David Austin of Shropshire, England, who wanted to rekindle interest in Old Garden Roses by hybridizing OGRs with modern hybrid teas and floribundas. The idea was to create a new group of roses that featured blooms with old-fashioned shapes and fragrances, evocative of classic gallica, alba and damask roses, but with modern repeat-blooming characteristics and the larger modern color range as well. Austin mostly succeeded in his mission; his tribe of "English" roses, now numbering hundreds of varieties, has been warmly embraced by the gardening public and are widely available to consumers. It should be noted that the typical winter-hardiness and disease-resistance of the classic Old Garden Roses has largely been compromised in the process; many English roses are susceptible to the same disease problems that plague modern hybrid teas and floribundas, and many are not hardy north of USDA Zone 5. Examples: 'Mary Rose,' 'Graham Thomas', 'Tamora'. Landscape Roses �X These are a modern classifation of rose developed mainly for mass amenity planting. In the late 20th century, traditional hybrid tea and floribunda rose varieties fell out of favor amid gardeners and landscapers, as they are often labor- and chemical-intensive plants susceptible to myriad pest and disease problems. So-called "landscape" roses have thus been developed to fill the consumer desire for a garden rose that offers color, form and fragrance, but is also low maintenance and easy to care for. Most landscape roses having the following characteristics: Good disease resistance Lower growing habit, usually under 60cm Repeat flowering Disease and pest resistance Non suckering, growing on their own roots. Principal parties involved in the breeding of new Landscape Roses varieties are Werner Noak (Germany) Meidiland Roses (France) Boot&Co. (Netherlands) �@ Pruning Rose pruning, sometimes regarded as horticultural art form, is largely dependant on the type of rose to be pruned, the reason for pruning, and the time of year it is at the time of the desired pruning. Most Old Garden Roses of strict European heritage (albas, damasks, gallicas, etc.) are shrubs that bloom once yearly, in late spring or early summer, on two-year-old (or older) canes. As such, their pruning requirements are quite minimal, and are overall similar to any other analogous shrub, such as lilac or forsythia. Generally, only old, spindly canes should be pruned away, to make room for new canes. One-year-old canes should never be pruned because doing so will remove next year's flower buds. The shrubs can also be pruned back lightly, immediately after the blooms fade, to reduce the overall height or width of the plant. In general, pruning requirements for OGRs are much less laborious and regimented than for Modern hybrids. Modern hybrids, including the hybrid teas, floribundas, grandifloras, modern miniatures, and English roses, have a complex genetic background that almost always includes China roses (R. chinensis). China roses were evergrowing, everblooming roses from humid subtropical regions that bloomed constantly on any new vegetative growth produced during the growing season. Their modern hybrid descendants exhibit similar habits: Unlike Old Garden Roses, modern hybrids bloom continuously (until stopped by frost) on any new canes produced during the growing season. They therefore require pruning away of any spent flowering stem, in order to divert the plant's energy into producing new growth and thence new flowers. Additionally, Modern Hybrids planted in cold-winter climates will almost universally require a "hard" annual pruning (reducing all canes to 8"�V12" in height) in early spring. Again, because of their complex China rose background, Modern Hybrids are typically not as cold-hardy as European OGRs, and low winter temperatures often desiccate or kill exposed canes. In spring, if left unpruned, these damanged canes will often die back all the way to the shrub's root zone, resulting in a weakened, disfigured plant. The annual "hard" pruning of hybrid teas, floribundas, etc. should generally be done in early spring; most gardeneres coincide this pruning with the blooming of forsythia shrubs. Canes should be cut about 1/2" above a vegetative bud (identifiable as a point on a cane where a leaf once grew). For both Old Garden Roses and Modern Hybrids, any weak, damaged or diseased growth should be pruned away completely, regardless of the time of year. Any pruning of any rose should also be done so that the cut is made at a 45-degree angle above a vegetative bud. This helps the pruned stem callus-over more quickly, and also mitigates moisture buildup over the cut, which can lead to disease problems. For all general rose pruning (including cutting flowers for arrangements), sharp secateurs (hand-held, sickle-bladed pruners) should be used to cut any growth 1/2" or less in diameter. For canes of a thickness greater than 1/2", pole loppers or a small handsaw are generally more effective; secateurs may be damaged or broken in such instances. �@ Deadheading Deadheading is the simple practice of manually removing any spent, faded, withered or discolored flowers from rose shrubs over the course of the blooming season. In Modern Hybrid roses, this is done for several reasons: To promote rebloom, to keep shrubs looking tidy, to eliminate stem dieback (see Pruning, above) and to eliminate excess debris accumulation in the garden. Deadheading is less necessary with Old Garden Roses, as it will not promote rebloom in any once-blooming varieties, but can still be done after the flowers fade for aesthetic purposes. �@ History The rose has always been valued for its beauty and has a long history of symbolism. The ancient Greeks and Romans identified the rose with their goddesses of love referred to as Aphrodite and Venus. In Rome a wild rose would be placed on the door of a room where secret or confidential matters were discussed. The phrase sub rosa, or "under the rose", means to keep a secret �X derived from this ancient Roman practice. Early Christians identified the five petals of the rose with the five wounds of Christ. Despite this interpretation, their leaders were hesitant to adopt it because of its association with Roman excesses and pagan ritual. The red rose was eventually adopted as a symbol of the blood of the Christian martyrs. Roses also later came to be associated with the Virgin Mary. Rose culture came into its own in Europe in the 1800s with the introduction of perpetual blooming roses from China. There are currently thousands of varieties of roses developed for bloom shape, size, fragrance and even for lack of prickles. �@ Culture Roses are ancient symbols of love and beauty. The rose was sacred to a number of goddesses (including Isis and Aphrodite), and is often used as a symbol of the Virgin Mary. Roses are so important that the word means pink or red in a variety of languages (such as Romance languages, Greek, and Polish). The rose is the national flower of England and the United States, as well as being the symbol of England Rugby, and of the Rugby Football Union. It is also the provincial flower of Yorkshire and Lancashire in England (the white rose and red rose respectively) and of Alberta (the wild rose), and the state flower of four US states: Iowa and North Dakota (R. arkansana), Georgia (R. laevigata), and New York (Rosa generally). Portland, Oregon counts "City of Roses" among its nicknames, and holds an annual Rose Festival. Roses are occasionally the basis of design for rose windows, such windows comprising five or ten segments (the five petals and five sepals of a rose) or multiples thereof; however most Gothic rose windows are much more elaborate and were probably based originally on the wheel and other symbolism. A red rose (often held in a hand) is also a symbol of socialism or social democracy; it is also used as a symbol by the British and Irish Labour Parties, as well as by the French, Spanish (Spanish Socialist Workers' Party), Portuguese, Norwegian, Danish, Swedish, Finnish, Brazilian, Dutch (Partij van de Arbeid) and European socialist parties. This originates from the red rose used as a badge by the marchers in the May 1968 street protests in Paris. White Rose was a World War II non-violent resistance group in Germany. �@ Symbolism Further information: Rose (symbolism) According to the Victorian "language of flowers", different colored roses each have their own symbolic meaning. �@ Pink: grace, gentle feelings of love Dark Pink: gratitude Light Pink: admiration, sympathy White: innocence, purity, secrecy, friendship, reverence and humility. Yellow: Yellow roses generally mean dying love or platonic love. In German-speaking countries, however, they can mean jealousy and infidelity. Yellow with red tips: Friendship, falling in love Orange: passion Burgundy: beauty Blue: mystery Further information: blue rose Green: calm Black: slavish devotion (as a true black rose is impossible to produce) Purple: protection (paternal/maternal love) The rose also has various supernatural and literary attributes. �@ In art Renoir painting of cabbage roses Roses are often portrayed by artists. The French artist Pierre-Joseph Redouté produced some of the most detailed paintings of roses. Henri Fantin-Latour was also a prolific painter of still life, particularly flowers including roses. The Rose 'Fantin-Latour' was named after the artist. Other impressionists including Claude Monet and Paul Cézanne have paintings of roses among their works. �@ Quotes In the driest whitest stretch of pain's infinite desert, I lost my sanity and found this rose. �X Rumi What's in a name? That which we call a rose/By any other name would smell as sweet. �X William Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet act II, sc. ii O, my love's like a red, red rose/That's newly sprung in June �X Robert Burns, A Red, Red Rose Hearts starve as well as bodies; give us bread, but give us roses. �X James Oppenheim, "Bread and Roses" Rose is a rose is a rose is a rose �X Gertrude Stein, Sacred Emily (1913), a poem included in Geography and Plays. Arise, arise, arouse, a rose! �X Eh, a rosy nose? �X Jeremy Hilary Boob, Ph.D. (more commonly referred to as the 'Nowhere Man'), Yellow Submarine (film) A name is a rose, and it only smells as sweet as you are. -The Tick �@ Perfume Rose perfumes are made from attar of roses or rose oil, which is a mixture of volatile essential oils obtained by steam-distilling the crushed petals of roses. The technique originated in Persia (the word Rose itself is from Persian) then spread through Arabia and India, but nowadays about 70% to 80% of production is in the Rose Valley near Kazanluk in Bulgaria, with some production in Qamsar in Iran and Germany. The Kaaba in Mecca is annually washed by the Iranian rose water from Qamsar. In Bulgaria, Iran and Germany, damask roses (Rosa damascena 'Trigintipetala') are used. In the French rose oil industry Rosa centifolia is used. The oil, pale yellow or yellow-grey in color, is sometimes called 'Rose Absolute' oil to distinguish it from diluted versions. The weight of oil extracted is about one three-thousandth to one six-thousandth of the weight of the flowers; for example, about 2,000 flowers are required to produce one gram of oil. The main constituents of attar of roses are the fragrant alcohols geraniol, which has the empirical formula C10H18O and the structural formula CH3.C[CH3]:CH.CH2.CH2.C[CH3]:CH.CH2OH and l-citronellol; and rose camphor, an odourless paraffin.There is also a balm consisting of crushed raspberries, strawberries, blackberries, and rose petals which make your skin softer that is commonly used in the United States and in Mexico. �@ Notable rose growers Some rose growers are known for their particular contributions to the field. These include: David Austin ("English" roses) Joséphine de Beauharnais Griffith Buck, professor of horticulture at Iowa State University from 1948 to 1985, hybridized nearly 90 rose varieties. Buck roses are known for disease resistance and winter hardiness. Conard-Pyle Co. 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For other uses, see Lily (disambiguation). ��Lilies�� redirects here. For other uses, see Lilies (disambiguation). g plants normally growing from bulbs, comprising a genus of about 110 species in the lily family, Liliaceae. They are important as large showy flowering garden plants, and in literature. Some of the bulbs have been consumed by people. The species in this genus are the true lilies, while other plants with lily in the common name are related to other groups of plants. Contents [hide] 1 Range 2 Botany 3 Species 4 Uses 4.1 Classification of garden forms 4.2 Propagation and growth 5 Names 6 See also 7 External links [edit] Range Lilies are native to the northern temperate regions. Their range in the Old World extends across much of Europe, the north Mediterranean, across most of Asia to Japan, south to the Nilgiri mountains in India, and south to the Philippines. In the New World they extend from southern Canada through much of the United States. A few species formerly included within this genus have now been placed in other genera. These include Cardiocrinum and Nomocharis. They are commonly adapted to either woodland habitats, often montane, or sometimes to grassland habitats. A few can survive in marshland and a single one is known to live as an epiphyte (L. arboricola). In general they prefer moderately acidic or lime-free soils. [edit] Botany Lilies are usually erect leafy stemmed herbs. The majority of species form naked or tunic-less scaly underground bulbs from which they overwinter. In some North American species the base of the bulb develops into rhizomes, on which numerous small bulbs are found. Some species develop stolons. A few species form bulbs at or near the soil surface . Many species form stem-roots. With these, the bulb grows naturally at some depth in the soil, and each year the new stem puts out adventitious roots above the bulb as it emerges from the soil. These roots are in addition to the basal roots that develop at the base of the bulb. The large flowers have three petals along with three petal-like sepals, often fragrant, and come in a range of colours ranging through whites, yellows, oranges, pinks, reds, purples, bronze and even nearly black. Markings include spots, brush strokes and picotees. The plants are summer flowering. Most species are deciduous, but Lilium candidum bears a basal rosette of leaves for much of the year. Flowers are formed at the top of a single erect stem, with leaves being borne at intervals up the stem. [edit] Species The following is a partial list of the recognised species. Lilium albanicum Lilium amabile Lilium amoenum Lilium anhuiense Lilium arboricola Lilium auratum �V Japanese golden rayed lily Lilium bakerianum Lilium bolanderi Lilium bosniacum - Bosnian lily Lilium brevistylum Lilium brownii Lilium bulbiferum �V Orange lily Lilium callosum Lilium canadense �V Canada lily Lilium candidum �V Madonna lily Lilium carniolicum Lilium catesbaei Lilium cernuum Lilium chalcedonicum �V Turkscap lily Lilium columbianum Lilium concolor Lilium dauricum Lilium davidii Lilium distichum Lilium duchartrei Lilium fargesii Lilium floridum Lilium formosanum Lilium grayi Lilium habaense Lilium hansonii Lilium heldreichii Lilium henrici Lilium henryi �V Henry's lily Lilium huidongense Lilium humboldtii �V Humboldt's lily Lilium iridollae Lilium jankae Lilium jinfushanense Lilium kelleyanum Lilium kelloggii Lilium lancifolium (syn. L. tigrinum) �V Tiger lily Lilium lankongense Lilium ledebourii Lilium leichtlinii Lilium leucanthum Lilium lijiangense Lilium longiflorum �V Easter lily Lilium lophophorum Lilium maritimum Lilium martagon �V Martagon lily Lilium matangense Lilium medeoloides Lilium medogense Lilium michauxii �V Carolina lily Lilium michiganense �V Michigan lily Lilium monadelphum Lilium nanum Lilium neilgherrense Lilium nepalense Lilium occidentale Lilium oxypetalum Lilium papilliferum Lilium paradoxum Lilium pardalinum �V Panther lily Lilium parryi Lilium parvum Lilium philadelphicum �V Wood lily Lilium pinifolium Lilium pomponium Lilium primulinum Lilium pumilum �V Korean lily Lilium pyrenaicum Lilium pyrophilum Lilium regale �V Regal lily Lilium rhodopaeum Lilium rosthornii Lilium rubescens Lilium saccatum Lilium sargentiae Lilium sempervivoideum Lilium sherriffiae Lilium souliei Lilium speciosum �V Japanese lily Lilium stewartianum Lilium sulphureum Lilium superbum Lilium taliense Lilium tianschanicum Lilium tsingtauense Lilium wallichianum Lilium wardii Lilium washingtonianum Lilium wenshanense Lilium xanthellum Lilium gloriosoides [edit] Uses Many species are widely grown in the garden in temperate and sub-tropical regions. Sometimes they may also be grown as potted plants. A large number of ornamental hybrids have been developed. They can be used in herbaceous borders, woodland and shrub plantings, and as a patio plant. Some lilies, especially Lilium longiflorum, as well as a few other hybrids, form important cut flower crops. These tend to be forced for particular markets; for instance, L. longiflorum for the Easter trade, when it may be called the Easter lily. Lilium bulbs are starchy and edible as root vegetables, although bulbs of some species may be very bitter. The non-bitter bulbs of L. lancifolium, L. pumilum, and especially L. brownii (called ���X�F in Chinese) are grown at large scale in China as a luxury or health food, most often sold in dry form. They are eaten especially in the summer, for their ability to reduce internal heat. They may be reconstituted and stir-fried, grated and used to thicken soup, or processed to extract starch. Their texture and taste draw comparison with the potato, although the individual bulb scales are much smaller. Although they are believed to be safe for humans to eat, there are reports of nephrotoxicosis (kidney failure) in cats which have eaten some species of Lilium and Hemerocallis [1]. Lilies are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including The Dun-bar. Lilies are considered the most common of flowers to be presented at funerals. The presence of Lilies at funerals symbolizes that the soul of the departed has received restored innocence after death.   [edit] Classification of garden forms   Asiatic hybrid flower Numerous forms are grown for the garden, and most of these are hybrids. They vary according to their parent species, and are classified in the following broad groups; Species (Division IX). All natural species and naturally occurring forms are included in this group. Asiatic hybrids (Division I). These are plants with medium sized, upright or outward facing flowers, mostly unscented. They are derived from central and East Asian species. Martagon hybrids (Division II). These are based on L. martagon and L. hansonii. The flowers are nodding, Turk's cap style (with the petals strongly recurved). Candidum hybrids (Division III). This includes hybrids of L. candidum with several other mostly European species. American hybrids (Division IV). These are mostly taller growing forms, originally derived from L. pardalinum. Many are clump-forming perennials with rhizomatous rootstocks. Longiflorum hybrids (Division V). These are cultivated forms of this species and its subspecies. They are most important as plants for cut flowers, and are less often grown in the garden than other hybrids. Trumpet lilies (Division VI), including Aurelian hybrids. This group includes hybrids of many Asiatic species, including L. regale and L. aurelianse. The flowers are trumpet shaped, facing outward or somewhat downward, and tend to be strongly fragrant, often especially night-fragrant. Oriental hybrids (Division VII). These are based on hybrids of L. auratum and L. speciosum, together with crossbreeds from several mainland Asiatic species. They are fragrant, and the flowers tend to be outward facing. Plants tend to be tall, and the flowers may be quite large. An example is Lilium "Stargazer". Other hybrids (Division VIII). Includes all other garden hybrids. [edit] Propagation and growth Liliums can be propagated in several ways; by division of the bulbs, by growing-on bulbils which are adventitious bulbs formed on the stem, by scaling, for which whole scales are detached from the bulb and planted to form a new bulb, by seed; seed germination patterns are variable and can be complex. [edit] Names The botanic name Lilium is the Latin form and is a Linnaean name. The Latin name is derived from the Greek leirion, which is generally assumed to be the Madonna lily. [2] [edit] See also Lily Seed Germination types RHS Lily Group Seed Exchange [3]] [edit] External links Flora Europaea: Lilium Flora of China: Lilium Flora of Nepal: Lilium species list Flora of North America: Lilium Online Lily Register, over 9400 entries Lilium de Florum: Lilium species North American Lily Society Royal Horticultural Society Lily Group       Gypsophila (Baby's-breath; Gypsophila [1] ) is a genus of about 100 species of flowering plants in the family Caryophyllaceae, native to Europe, Asia and north Africa. Many species are found on calcium-rich soils, including gypsum, whence the name of the genus. Some species are also sometimes called "baby's breath" or simply, "Gyp", among the floral industry. Its botanical name means "lover of chalk", which is accurate in describing the type of soil in which this plant grows. They are herbaceous annual and perennial plants growing to 5-120 cm tall. The leaves are opposite, linear to narrow triangular, often falcate (sickle-shaped), 1-7 cm long and 2-8 mm broad. The flowers are produced in large inflorescences, which may be either dense or open and lax; each flower is small, 3-10 mm diameter, with five white or pink petals. Selected species Gypsophila acutifolia - Sharp-leaved Gypsophila Gypsophila altissima Gypsophila aretioides Gypsophila arrostii Gypsophila bicolor Gypsophila bungeana - Bunge's Gypsophila Gypsophila capituliflora Gypsophila cephalotes Gypsophila cerastioides Gypsophila davurica Gypsophila desertorum Gypsophila elegans Gypsophila fastigiata - Fastigiate Gypsophila Gypsophila huashanensis Gypsophila licentiana Gypsophila muralis - Annual Gypsophila Gypsophila nana - Dwarf Gypsophila Gypsophila oldhamiana Gypsophila pacifica Gypsophila paniculata - Common Gypsophila Gypsophila patrinii Gypsophila perfoliata - Perfoliate Gypsophila Gypsophila petraea Gypsophila pilosa - Turkish Baby's Breath Gypsophila rokejeka - Soap root[2] Gypsophila repens - Alpine Gypsophila Gypsophila scorzonerifolia - Glandular Gypsophila Gypsophila sericea Gypsophila spinosa Gypsophila tenuifolia Gypsophila tschiliensis �@ [edit] Cultivation and uses Gypsophilas are often grown as ornamental plants in gardens; they are grown both as garden plants and also valuable as a cut flower in floristry to add as a filler to flower bouquets. The most commonly encountered in gardens are G. paniculata (a perennial species), G. elegans, and G. muralis (both annual species). They are easily propagated from seed, by cuttings, or by root division before growth starts in the spring. Starting as a tiny seed, the annuals and perennials germinate in ten to fifteen days, and can grow rapidly up to 50 cm in height. While they prefer full sun, along with rich, light soil; deficiencies in poor soil constitution can be overcome by adding a general purpose fertilizer, as long as it is well drained. Gypsophila paniculata has become an invasive species in parts of North America. Gypsophila rokejeka is used to provide saponins in the production of halva[2] Gypsophila species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including three case-bearers of the genus Coleophora which feed on G. fastigiata: C. kyffhusana, C. niveistrigella (both of which feed exclusively on the plant) and C. vicinella. Morphology Flowering plants are heterosporangiate, producing two types of reproductive spores). The pollen (male spores) and ovules (female spores) are produced in different organs, but the typical flower is a bisporangiate strobilus in that it contains both organs. A flower is regarded as a modified stem with shortened internodes and bearing, at its nodes, structures that may be highly modified leaves.[1] In essence, a flower structure forms on a modified shoot or axis with an apical meristem that does not grow continuously (growth is determinate). The stem is called a pedicel, the end of which is the torus or receptacle. The parts of a flower are arranged in whorls on the torus. The four main parts or whorls (starting from the base of the flower or lowest node and working upwards) are as follows: Calyx �V the outer whorl of sepals; typically these are green, but are petal-like in some species. Corolla �V the whorl of petals, which are usually thin, soft and colored to attract insects that help the process of pollination. Androecium (from Greek andros oikia: man's house) �V one or two whorls of stamens, each a filament topped by an anther where pollen is produced. Pollen contains the male gametes. Gynoecium (from Greek gynaikos oikia: woman's house) �V one or more pistils. The female reproductive organ is the carpel: this contains an ovary with ovules (which contain female gametes). A pistil may consist of a number of carpels merged together, in which case there is only one pistil to each flower, or of a single individual carpel (the flower is then called apocarpous). The sticky tip of the pistil, the stigma, is the receptor of pollen. The supportive stalk, the style becomes the pathway for pollen tubes to grow from pollen grains adhering to the stigma, to the ovules, carrying the reproductive material. Although the floral structure described above is considered the "typical" structural plan, plant species show a wide variety of modifications from this plan. These modifications have significance in the evolution of flowering plants and are used extensively by botanists to establish relationships among plant species. For example, the two subclasses of flowering plants may be distinguished by the number of floral organs in each whorl: dicotyledons typically having 4 or 5 organs (or a multiple of 4 or 5) in each whorl and monocotyledons having three or some multiple of three. The number of carpels in a compound pistil may be only two, or otherwise not related to the above generalization for monocots and dicots. In the majority of species individual flowers have both pistils and stamens as described above. These flowers are described by botanists as being perfect, bisexual, or hermaphrodite. However, in some species of plants the flowers are imperfect or unisexual: having only either male (stamens) or female (pistil) parts. In the latter case, if an individual plant is either male or female the species is regarded as dioecious. However, where unisexual male and female flowers Additional discussions on floral modifications from the basic plan are presented in the articles on each of the basic parts of the flower. In those species that have more than one flower on an axis�Xso-called composite flowers�X the collection of flowers is termed an inflorescence; this term can also refer to the specific arrangements of flowers on a stem. In this regard, care must be exercised in considering what a ����flower���� is. In botanical terminology, a single daisy or sunflower for example, is not a flower but a flower head�Xan inflorescence composed of numerous tiny flowers (sometimes called florets). Each of these flowers may be anatomically as described above. Many flowers have a symmetry, if the perianth is bisected through the central axis from any point, symmetrical halves are produced - the flower is called regular or actinomorphic e.g. rose or trillium. When flowers are bisected and produce only one line that produces symmetrical halves the flower is said to be irregular or zygomorphic. e.g. snapdragon or most orchids. �@ Floral formula A floral formula is a way to represent the structure of a flower using specific letters, numbers, and symbols. Typically, a general formula will be used to represent the flower structure of a plant family rather than a particular species. The following representations are used: Ca = calyx (sepal whorl; e.g. Ca5 = 5 sepals) Co = corolla (petal whorl; e.g., Co3(x) = petals some multiple of three )     Z = add if zygomorphic (e.g., CoZ6 = zygomorphic with 6 petals) A = androecium (whorl of stamens; e.g., A�� = many stamens) G = gynoecium (carpel or carpels; e.g., G1 = monocarpous) �@ x - to represent a "variable number" �� - to represent "many" �@ A floral formula would appear something like this: Ca5Co5A10 - ��G1 Several additional symbols are sometimes used (see Key to Floral Formulas). �@ Pollination Grains of pollen sticking to this bee will be transferred to the next flower it visits The primary purpose of a flower is reproduction by the joining of pollen of one plant with the ovules of another (or in some cases its own ovules) in order to form seed which grows into the next generation of plants. Sexual reproduction produces genetically unique offspring, allowing for adaptation to occur. As such, each flower has a specific design which best encourages the transfer of this pollen. Many flowers are dependent upon the wind to move pollen between flowers of the same species. Others rely on animals (especially insects) to accomplish this feat. Even large animals such as birds, bats, and pygmy possums can be employed. The period of time during which this process can take place (the flower is fully expanded and functional) is called anthesis. �@ Attraction methods Bee orchid mimics a female bee in order to attract a male bee pollinator Many flowers in nature have evolved to attract animals to pollinate the flower, the movements of the pollinating agent contributing to the opportunity for genetic recombination within a dispersed plant population. Flowers that are insect-pollinated are called entomophilous (literally "insect-loving"). Flowers commonly have glands called nectaries on their various parts that attract these animals. Birds and bees are common pollinators: both having color vision, thus opting for "colorful" flowers. Some flowers have patterns, called nectar guides, that show pollinators where to look for nectar; they may be visible to us or only under ultraviolet light, which is visible to bees and some other insects. Flowers also attract pollinators by scent. Many of their scents are pleasant to our sense of smell, but not all. Some plants, such as Rafflesia, the titan arum, and the North American pawpaw (Asimina triloba), are pollinated by flies, so they produce a scent imitating rotting meat. Flowers pollinated by night visitors such as bats or moths are especially likely to concentrate on scent - which can attract pollinators in the dark - rather than color: most such flowers are white. Still other flowers use mimicry to attract pollinators. Some species of orchids, for example, produce flowers resembling female bees in color, shape, and scent. Male bees move from one such flower to another in search of a mate. �@ Pollination mechanism The pollination mechanism employed by a plant depends on what method of pollination is utilized. Most flowers can be divided between two broad groups of pollination methods: Entomophilous - flowers attract and use insects, bats, birds or other animals to transfer pollen from one flower to the next. often they are specialized in shape and have an arrangement of the stamens that ensures that pollen grains are transferred to the bodies of the pollinator when it lands in search of its attractant (such as nectar, pollen, or a mate). In pursuing this attractant from many flowers of the same species, the pollinator transfers pollen to the stigmas - arranged with equally pointed precision - of all of the flowers it visits. Many flower rely on simple proximity between flower parts to ensure pollination. Others, such as the Sarracenia or lady-slipper orchids, have elaborate designs to ensure pollination while preventing self-pollination. Anemophilous - flowers use the wind to move pollen from one flower to the next, examples include the grasses, Birch trees, Ragweed and Maples. They have no need to attract pollinators and therefore tend not to be "showy" flowers. Whereas the pollen of entomophilous flowers tends to be large-grained, sticky, and rich in protein (another "reward" for pollinators), anemophilous flower pollen is usually small-grained, very light, and of little nutritional value to insects, though it may still be gathered in times of dearth. Honeybees and bumblebees actively gather anemophilous corn (maize) pollen, though it is of little value to them. Some flowers are self pollinated and use flowers that never open or are self pollinated before the flowers open, these flowers are called clestigomous. Many Viola species and some Salvia have these types of flowers. �@ Flower-pollinator relationships Many flowers have close relationships with one or a few specific pollinating organisms. Many flowers, for example, attract only one specific species of insect, and therefore rely on that insect for successful reproduction. This close relationship is often given as an example of coevolution, as the flower and pollinator are thought to have developed together over a long period of time to match each other's needs. This close relationship compounds the negative effects of extinction. The extinction of either member in such a relationship would mean almost certain extinction of the other member as well. Some endangered plant species are so because of shrinking pollinator populations. �@ Fertilization and dispersal ome flowers with both stamens and a pistil are capable of self-fertilization, which does increase the chance of producing seeds but limits genetic variation. The extreme case of self-fertilization occurs in flowers that always self-fertilize, such as many dandelions. Conversely, many species of plants have ways of preventing self-fertilization. Unisexual male and female flowers on the same plant may not appear or mature at the same time, or pollen from the same plant may be incapable of fertilizing its ovules. The latter flower types, which have chemical barriers to their own pollen, are referred to as self-sterile or self-incompatible (see also: Plant sexuality). �@ Evolution While land plants have existed for about 425 million years, the first ones reproduced by a simple adaptation of their aquatic counterparts: spores. In the sea, plants -- and some animals -- can simply scatter out little living copies of themselves to float away and grow elsewhere. This is how early plants, such as the modern fern, are thought to have reproduced. But plants soon began protecting these copies to deal with drying out and other abuse which is even more likely on land than in the sea. The protection became the seed...but not, yet, flowers. Early seed-bearing plants include the ginkgo, conifers (like pines), and fir trees. The earliest fossil of a flowering plant, Archaefructus liaoningensis, is dated about 125 million years old.[2] Several groups of extinct gymnosperms, particularly seed ferns, have been proposed as the ancestors of flowering plants but there is no continuous fossil evidence showing exactly how flowers evolved. The apparently sudden appearance of relatively modern flowers in the fossil record posed such a problem for the theory of evolution that it was called an "abominable mystery" by Charles Darwin. Recently discovered angiosperm fossils such as Archaefructus, along with further discoveries of fossil gymnosperms, suggest how angiosperm characteristics may have been acquired in a series of steps. Recent DNA analysis (molecular systematics)[3][4] show that Amborella trichopoda, found on the Pacific island of New Caledonia, is the sister group to the rest of the flowering plants, and morphological studies[5] suggest that it has features which may have been characteristic of the earliest flowering plants. A Syrphid fly on a Grape hyacinth The general assumption is that the function of flowers, from the start, was to involve other animals in the reproduction process. Pollen can be scattered without bright colors and obvious shapes, which would therefore be a liability, using the plant's resources, unless they provide some other benefit. One proposed reason for the sudden, fully developed appearance of flowers is that they evolved in an isolated setting like an island, or chain of islands, where the plants bearing them were able to develop a highly specialized relationship with some specific animal (a wasp, for example), the way many island species develop today. This symbiotic relationship, with a hypothetical wasp bearing pollen from one plant to another much the way fig wasps do today, could have eventually resulted in both the plant(s) and their partners developing a high degree of specialization. Island genetics is believed to be a common source of speciation, especially when it comes to radical adaptations which seem to have required inferior transitional forms. Note that the wasp example is not incidental; bees, apparently evolved specifically for symbiotic plant relationships, are descended from wasps. Likewise, most fruit used in plant reproduction comes from the enlargement of parts of the flower. This fruit is frequently a tool which depends upon animals wishing to eat it, and thus scattering the seeds it contains. While many such symbiotic relationships remain too fragile to survive competition with mainland animals and spread, flowers proved to be an unusually effective means of production, spreading (whatever their actual origin) to become the dominant form of land plant life. While there is only hard proof of such flowers existing about 130 million years ago, there is some circumstantial evidence that they did exist up to 250 million years ago. A chemical used by plants to defend their flowers, oleanane, has been detected in fossil plants that old, including gigantopterids[6], which evolved at that time and bear many of the traits of modern, flowering plants, though they are not known to be flowering plants themselves, because only their stems and prickles have been found preserved in detail; one of the earliest examples of petrification. The similarity in leaf and stem structure can be very important, because flowers are genetically just an adaptation of normal leaf and stem components on plants, a combination of genes normally responsible for forming new shoots.[7] The most primitive flowers are thought to have had a variable number of flower parts, often separate from (but in contact with) each other. The flowers would have tended to grow in a spiral pattern, to be bisexual (in plants, this means both male and female parts on the same flower), and to be dominated by the ovary (female part). As flowers grew more advanced, some variations developed parts fused together, with a much more specific number and design, and with either specific sexes per flower or plant, or at least "ovary inferior". Flower evolution continues to the present day; modern flowers have been so profoundly influenced by humans that many of them cannot be pollinated in nature. Many modern, domesticated flowers used to be simple weeds, which only sprouted when the ground was disturbed. Some of them tended to grow with human crops, and the prettiest did not get plucked because of their beauty, developing a dependence upon and special adaptation to human affection.[8] �@ Development The molecular control of floral organ identity determination is fairly well understood. In a simple model, three gene activities interact in a combinatorial manner to determine the developmental identities of the organ primordia within the floral meristem. These gene functions are called A, B and C-gene functions. In the first floral whorl only A-genes are expressed, leading to the formation of sepals. In the second whorl both A- and B-genes are expressed, leading to the formation of petals. In the third whorl, B and C genes interact to form stamens and in the center of the flower C-genes alone give rise to carpels. The model is based upon studies of homeotic mutants in Arabidopsis thaliana and snapdragon, Antirrhinum majus. For example, in a loss of B-gene function mutant flower we get sepals in the first whorl as usual, but also in the second whorl (the B-function lost that is needed for petal development). In the third whorl the lack of B function but presence of C-function mimics the fourth whorl, leading to the formation of carpels also in the third whorl. See also The ABC Model of Flower Development. Most genes central in this model belong to the MADS-box genes and are transcription factors that regulate the expression of the genes specific for each floral organ. �@ Flowering transition The transition to flowering is one of the major phase changes that a plant makes during its life cycle. The transition must take place at a time that will ensure maximal reproductive success. To meet these needs a plant is able to interpret important endogenous and environmental cues such as changes in plant hormones levels and seasonable temperature and photoperiodchanges. Many perennial and most biennial plants require vernalization to flower. The molecular interpretation of these signals through genes such as CONSTANS and FLC ensures that flowering occurs at a time that is favorable for fertilization and the formation of seeds[9]. Flower formation is initiated at the ends of stems, and involves a number of different physiological and morphological changes. The first step is the transformation of the vegetative stem primordia into floral primordia. This occurs as biochemical changes take place to change cellular differentiation of leaf, bud and stem tissues into tissue that will grow into the reproductive organs. Growth of the central part of the stem tip stops or flattens out and the sides develop protuberances in a whorled or spiral fashion around the outside of the stem end. These protuberances develop into the sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels. Once this process begins, in most plants, it cannot be reversed and the stems develop flowers, even if the initial start of the flower formation event was dependent of some environmental cue. Once the process begins, even if that cue is removed the stem will continue to develop a flower. �@ Uses by humans �@ In everyday life In modern times, people have sought ways to cultivate, buy, wear, or just be around flowers and blooming plants, partly because of their agreeable smell. Around the world, people use flowers for a wide range of events and functions that, cumulatively, encompass one's lifetime: For new births or Christenings As a corsage or boutonniere to be worn at social functions or for holidays For wedding flowers for the bridal party, and decorations for the hall As brightening decorations within the home As a gift of remembrance for bon voyage parties, welcome home parties, and "thinking of you" gifts For funeral flowers and expressions of sympathy for the grieving People therefore grow flowers around their homes, dedicate entire parts of their living space to flower gardens, pick wildflowers, or buy flowers from florists who depend on an entire network of commercial growers and shippers to support their trade. �@ Symbolism Lilies are often used to denote life or resurrection Many flowers have important symbolic meanings in Western culture. The practice of assigning meanings to flowers is known as floriography. Some of the more common examples include: Red roses are given as a symbol of love, beauty, and passion. Poppies are a symbol of consolation in time of death. In the UK, Australia and Canada, red poppies are worn to commemorate soldiers who have died in times of war. Irises/Lily are used in burials as a symbol referring to "resurrection/life". It is also associated with stars (sun) and its petals blooming/shining. Daisies are a symbol of innocence. Flowers within art are also representative of the female genitalia, as seen in the works of artists such as Georgia O'Keefe, Imogen Cunningham, Veronica Ruiz de Velasco, and Judy Chicago, and in fact in Asian and western classical art. �@ Edible flowers Flowers provide less food than other major plants parts (seeds, fruits, roots, stems and leaves) but they provide several important foods and spices. Flower vegetables include broccoli, cauliflower and artichoke. The most expensive spice, saffron, consists of dried stigmas of a crocus. Other flower spices are cloves and capers. Hops flowers are used to flavor beer. Marigold flowers are fed to chickens to give their egg yolks a golden yellow color, which consumers find more desirable. Dandelion flowers are often made into wine. Bee Pollen, pollen collected from bees, is considered a health food by some people. Honey consists of bee-processed flower nectar and is often named for the type of flower, e.g. orange blossom honey, clover honey and tupelo honey. Hundreds of fresh flowers are edible but few are widely marketed as food. They are often used to add color and flavor to salads. Squash flowers are dipped in breadcrumbs and fried. Edible flowers include nasturtium, chrysanthemum, carnation, cattail, honeysuckle, chicory, cornflower, Canna, and sunflower. Some edible flowers are sometimes candied such as daisy and rose (you may also come across a candied pansy). �@ Floristry Under Construction Main and related articles at: Floristry, Flower garden, Gardening, and List of flowers Flowers can also be made into tea. Dried flowers such as chrysanthemum, rose, jasmine, camomile are infused into tea both for their fragrance and medical properties. Sometimes, they are also mixed with tea leaves for the added fragrance. �@ In the arts The great variety of delicate and beautiful flowers has inspired the works of numerous poets, especially from the 18th-19th century Romantic era. Famous examples include William Wordsworth's I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud and William Blake's Ah! Sun-Flower. Because of their varied and colorful appearance, flowers have long been a favorite subject of visual artists as well. Some of the most celebrated paintings from well-known painters are of flowers, such as Van Gogh's sunflowers series or Monet's water lilies. Flowers are also dried, freeze dried and pressed in order to create permanent, three-dimensional pieces of flower art. �@ Mythology The Roman goddess of flowers, gardens, and the season of Spring is Flora. The Greek goddess of spring, flowers and nature is Chloris. In Hindu mythology, flowers have a significant status. Vishnu, one of the three major gods in the Hindu system, is often depicted standing straight on a lotus flower.[10] Apart from the association with Vishnu, the Hindu tradition also considers the lotus to have spiritual significance.[11] For example, it figures in the Hindu stories of creation.[12] �@ References Eames, A. J. (1961) Morphology of the Angiosperms McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. Esau, Katherine (1965) Plant Anatomy (2nd ed.) John Wiley & Sons, New York. Most Relevant Link: Taiwan Flowers �@ Other Relevant Links: �@ Bouquets Bridal Flowers Cheap Flowers Dried Flowers Exotic Flowers Florist Wholesale �@ Florists Flower Arrangements Flower Baskets Flower Bulbs Flower Seed Flower Vase �@ Flowers Flowers Wholesale Gardens Silk Flowers Tropical Flowers Wedding Florist �@ Popular Links: �@ Shenzhen Shenzhen Hotel Shenzhen Hotel In Shenzhen Shenzhen China Hotel In Shenzhen China �@ Nanjing Nanjing Hotel Nanjing China Nanjing Hotel In Nanjing China Hotel In Nanjing �@ Kowloon Kowloon Hotel Hong Kong Kowloon Hotel Kowloon Shangri LA Hotel In Kowloon Hong Kong Empire Hotel Kowloon �@ TAIWAN'S ORCHIDS�ETAIWAN'S CATTLEYA �ʦX���,����,�ᩱ��|,�ӰȰe��,�j���e��,�x�W,����e��,�x�W,�O�W,�O�W�ᩱ�p��,�s��b,���a�B�L���ᩱ,��W�q��,��W�R��,���R��,����ᩱ,,�x�W��|,�x�_��|,�����,�饻��,�j����,�����,�����,������,�V�n�ᩱ,�V�n��,�����,����ᩱ,����e��,���q��,���R��, �x�W��b-�ᩱ,�e��,�x�_��b-���ᩱ,�x�W�ᩱ,�ᩱ,�|���G�m,�O�W�ᩱ,�O�W��b,���H�`���,���,�֪�,����,�T�y�|���G�m, ��s�ᩱ,�h�L�ᩱ, 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